Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science

Effects of restricted feeding regimes on greenhouse gas emission, production and economics of tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) monoculture in pond

This study evaluated the effects of different feeding regimes on water quality parameters, fish growth, feed performance, economic returns and greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs) in Oreochromis mossambicus monoculture. Three treatments were applied viz. T₁: regular feeding (twice daily); T₂: feeding off 1 day/week and T₃: feeding off 2 days/week, each with two replications. Tilapia stocking density (49,400fish/ha), initial stocking weight (20.75±2.47), dietary protein content (30%) and fish growing period (6 months) were same for all treatments. Significant variations (P<0.05) were found in water quality parameters such as dissolved oxygen (4.59±0.24 to 6.31±0.22 mg/L), pH (5.51±0.08 to 6.60±0.01), CO₂(4.59±0.24 to 6.31±0.22 mg/L) and total dissolved solids (520.68±3.74 to 554.57±3.78 mg/L), while temperature remained within the optimal range 29.06 to 29.32⁰C). Growth performance was highest in T₁(final weight: 249.65 g; SGR: 2.08%) and lowest in T₃ (190.63 g, SGR: 1.74%). FCR ranged from 1.67 to 1.87, and survival rate from 80.50% to 87.50%. Net profit was highest in T₂ (454322.78 BDT/ha) followed by T₁and T₃, indicating 16.7% increase over T₁ and 50.2% over T₃. Cost-benefit ratio was also highest in T₂ (.70), suggesting economic viability of moderate feed deprivation. Importantly, GHGs emissions were highest in T₁ (8.75 kg/ha/year), and lowest in T₃(6.62 kg/ha/year), showing a 24.3% reduction with intermittent feeding. These findings highlight that moderate feed restrictions (T₂) can optimize production performance, enhance profitability, and reduced environmental impact, offering a sustainable strategy for tilapia aquaculture. This dual benefit approach supports economic efficiency and environmental sustainability, aligning with global goals for climate-smart aquaculture.

Plant Growth and Phosphate uptake of leafy vegetable - Methi and Palak as influenced by Phosphate Solubilizing Fungi

Different types of microbes diverse in soil were recorded to promote plant growth including the yield in crops by solubilizing the insoluble phosphate. The present work was focused on improving the growth and phosphate uptake in leafy vegetables by supplying phosphate bioinoculants. A total of 41 isolates from 50 rhizosphere soil samples were isolated through the serial dilution method by Pikovskaya’s medium. 6 PSF with maximum solubilization index (3.08 to 3.86) selected and further evaluated. They showed good results in decreased pH (4.0 to 3.1 from an initial pH of 6.89), titrable acidity (30.16g/L to 38.08g/L), and phosphate concentration in culture broth (60µg to 25µg). PSF 39 showed maximum plant height (7.8cm at 15 days after sowing and 10.1cm at harvest), root length (5.5cm), biomass (2.11g of fresh weight and 1.01g of dry weight), leafy vegetable weight (2.01g), plant phosphorus uptake (0.393%) and available P in rhizosphere soil (346.96Kg/ha) in Methi. PSF 38 produced the most plant height (15.7cm at 15 days after sowing and 30.6cm at harvest), root length (10.9cm), biomass (11.23g fresh weight and 3.82g dry weight), leafy vegetable weight (10.32g), plant phosphorus uptake (0.369%) and available P in rhizosphere soil (346.29 Kg/ha) in Palak. Due to observation of results, the PSF inoculants can be recommended as phosphate solubilizers in the agricultural field as able to promote plant growth in leafy vegetables.

Tomato Production in Nawalparasi East: Socio-Economic, Marketing, Institutional, and Constraint Analysis

Aashish Uprety

Survey research was conducted to assess the socio-economics, marketing, institutional involvement and problems of the production of tomato in Nawalparasi East District, Nepal. Among the tomato farmers of Kawasoti Municipality – 17 and Madhyabindhu Municipality – 1, 94 farmers were selected for the survey. On average, 0.09 hectares of owned land and 0.014 katha of leased land were used for tomato farming. The average cost of tomato production in the study site was NRs. 3,90,500.15 per hectare. Similarly, net margin and benefit-cost ratio were found to be NRs. 127534.85 per hectare and 1.33. Human labour, fertilizer, and mulching were significant contributors to the cost of production of tomatoes. Producer – Wholesale Market – Retailer – Consumer was the most dominant and 60 % of the farmers have received training for the production of tomatoes through different organizations. Also, 69 % of them were getting some kind of subsidy on seed, mulching, and irrigation facilities, while 31 % weren’t getting any kind of subsidies. The major production and marketing problems were incidence of disease and pests, unavailability of quality seeds, high middleman margin, and price fluctuation. However, the study indicated that tomato production is a highly potential agricultural enterprise for the study area.

Screening and Evaluation of Sorghum Germplasm for Salinity Tolerance Using Physiological Indices in Hydroponic Culture

Md. Haque

Salinity is a major abiotic stress limiting crop productivity globally, particularly in coastal and deltaic regions prone to saltwater intrusion. This study aimed to screen and evaluate eighteen Sorghum bicolor L. germplasm for salinity tolerance using physiological and biochemical indices under controlled hydroponic conditions. The experiment was conducted in a completely randomized design with two salinity treatments (0 and 12 dS m⁻¹), replicated thrice, in the physiology laboratory of Bangladesh Agricultural University. Morphological (shoot/root length, leaf number), physiological (SPAD value, Fv/Fm, proline content), and biochemical traits (Na⁺, K⁺, and K⁺/Na⁺ ratio) were assessed to quantify salinity responses. Significant genotypic differences (p ≤ 0.001) were found in key indices: shoot length stress tolerance index ranged from 74.16% (BD-738) to 92.10% (BD-713), while root-shoot ratio reached a maximum of 135.34 in Safal 999. The highest K⁺/Na⁺ ratio was observed in Sorghum BD-731 (10.44), whereas Sorghum BD-701 showed the lowest (2.16), indicating high susceptibility. Proline accumulation increased under stress, notably in Sorghum BD-713 and Hybrid Sorgo, suggesting osmotic adjustment mechanisms. Based on visual SES scoring, five genotypes (Sorghum BD-703, Sorghum BD-706, Sorghum BD-713, Sorghum BD-730, Sorghum BD-737) were classified as tolerant, and seven as moderately tolerant. Hydroponic screening coupled with physiological indices provided a robust and reproducible method to identify salinity-tolerant sorghum lines. These findings highlight Sorghum BD-703, Sorghum BD-713, Sorghum BD-706, and Hyb

Field Evaluation of Wheat Genotypes for Resistance to Spot Blotch caused by Bipolaris sorokiniana (Sacc.) Shoemaker and Yield Performance

Spot blotch of wheat, caused by Bipolaris sorokiniana (Sacc.) Shoemaker, is an important wheat disease in Nepal. The purpose of the study was to assess wheat genotypes for resistance to the spot blotch and their yield potential in field conditions. A field trial was conducted with 100 wheat genotypes using an alpha-lattice design with two replications, under natural conditions at the National Maize Research Program, Rampur, Chitwan, from December 2020 to April 2021. Disease assessment was performed using both double-digit (recorded four times at eight-day intervals) and single-digit (recorded three times at three-day intervals) scales. The single-digit visual scoring for the flag and flag-1 leaves began 97 days after sowing. Genotypes were categorized based on the final disease severity of the flag leaves. The genotypes differed significantly (p<0.001) for resistance to spot blotch. Of the 100 genotypes, one (NRN35) was found moderately resistant, 19 were moderately susceptible, 60 were susceptible, and 20 were highly susceptible. The plot grain yield (482 g) of NRN35 was the second highest among genotypes. A significant negative correlation (p<0.001) between the Area Under Disease Progress Curve and yield-attributing traits was found. In addition, a strong positive correlation (r= 0.762, p<0.001) was found between the disease incidence in the flag-1 and flag leaves. These findings suggest that NRN35 holds potential for breeding programs aimed at developing spot blotch-resistant wheat varieties.

Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the agronomic practices of rice farmers: A case study in Mymensingh district of Bangladesh

Raguib Hassan — 2025-06-25

This study was conducted to determine the changes occurred in agronomic practices during the COVID-19 pandemic among rice farmers in rural and peri-urban areas of Mymensingh district of Bangladesh. A survey was conducted among 64 farmers including 32 from rural areas and 32 from peri-urban areas. This study examined the characteristics of farmers, the extent of changes in agronomic practices adopted, problems faced by farmers during the pandemic, strategies adopted to cope with the pandemic situation, and possible solutions. There were significant differences in agronomic practices between rural and peri-urban farmers, with education, training exposure, and extension personnel contact being substantial factors for both the groups. Farmers faced different problems related to agronomic practices; however, rural farmers faced more problems compared to peri-urban farmers. In terms of strategies, rural farmers emphasized local sourcing for agricultural inputs, while peri-urban farmers emphasized on marketing via mobile phone calls. Both rural and peri-urban farmers suggested that more incentives from the government would be the most effective solution during the post-pandemic time. Rural farmers had more stable rice yields than peri-urban farmers despite making more changes in agronomic activities during the pandemic. Most of the rural farmers changed their fertilizer application techniques and patterns, while majority of the peri-urban farmers changed their seed selection and planting techniques to cope with the pandemic. The findings of the present study will help to formulate strategies to cope with similar situations in the future to ensure food security in the country and livelihood of the farming community.

Techno-economic analysis of clean cooking technologies and fuels in Uganda

2025-06-25

Access to clean, affordable, and efficient cooking energy is a key development challenge in Uganda, with over 90% of households and institutions relying on traditional biomass fuels. This study was focused on techno-economic assessment of cooking technologies and fuels through Controlled Cooking Tests (CCTs), surveys, and interviews across household and institutional settings to evaluate fuel consumption, cooking time, cost, and user preferences across wood, charcoal, briquettes, LPG, and electric stoves. The results showed that electric hot plates and LPG stoves were the most energy-efficient, consuming 10.42 MJ and 13.28 MJ, respectively, cooking of 1 kg of beans compared to 38.81 MJ for improved wood stoves and 102.44 MJ for traditional three-stone fires. Cooking time, the improved institutional wood stove was the fastest (129 min), followed by LPG (151 min), traditional stoves (153 min), and electric hot plates (174 min). Fuel cost per kg of beans cooked was highest for LPG (Ugx 5,506) and electricity (Ugx 4,393), while improved briquette stoves were the cheapest (Ugx 302), though their adoption remains limited due to availability issues. Improved biomass stoves demonstrated up to 62% energy savings compared to traditional devices, offering a cost-effective and scalable transition option. This study provides the first comprehensive performance comparison across multiple fuel-stove combinations in Uganda and highlights critical trade-offs between energy efficiency, cost, and accessibility. Strategic policy actions including targeted subsidies, investment in clean fuel supply chains, and behaviour change campaigns are recommended to accelerate adoption and support Uganda’s energy, climate, and development goals.

Economic analysis of maize production in traditional and mechanized farming systems in Nilkantha Municipality, Dhading, Nepal

Subheksha Shrestha — 2025-06-25

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the economic analysis as costs and profitability of maize production in traditional and mechanized farming systems. For this, a purposive random sampling of 101 maize farmers, comprising 30 using traditional methods and 71 employing mechanized systems was selected for structured household surveys. Cobb-Douglas production function, independent sample t-test, chi-square test, and descriptive statistics was performed using MS Excel and STATA software. Farmers under traditional and mechanized systems produced maize on average on 6.18 and 5.46 ropani, respectively. In mechanized systems, the mini tiller was the main tool used for the land preparation, while urea and farmyard manure (FYM) were the main suppliers of nutrients. Weeding was the most expensive operation in maize production. Traditional farming incurred higher costs for land preparation, planting, and plant protection. The net return per ropani was NRs. 1158.98 (8.47$) for traditional farming and NRs. 1597.44 (11.67$) for mechanized farming. The benefit-cost ratios were 1.42 for traditional and 1.57 for mechanized systems, respectively. Although the difference in returns per area between the two systems was not statistically significant, but mechanization effectively reduced production costs and enhanced profitability, representing a viable approach to improving maize farmers' financial circumstances. Cobb-Douglas production function analysis revealed a coefficient sum of 0.756 for traditional systems and 1.248 for mechanized systems, indicating decreasing and increasing returns to scale, respectively. Therefore, adoption of mechanization for maize production is recommended for cost minimization and profit maximization in Dhading district of Nepal.

Risk assessment of a Disinfection By-Product (DBP) on mitotic chromosomes using Allium root-tip bioassay

Monika Yadav — 2025-06-25

The process of disinfection of water, using chemicals like chlorine, bromine or iodine, leads to formation of certain chemicals called Disinfection By-Products (DBPs). These chemicals were once considered potentially harmless but as their levels are increasing in potable water, concerns over their toxic effects are growing worldwide. Chlorinated DBPs are of highest concern in case of swimming pool waters as they provide greatest exposure to skin, eyes and mouth of the swimmers. This study was therefore planned with an aim to evaluate the cytotoxic effects of DBPs on mitotic chromosomes of Allium cepa roots under controlled laboratory conditions. For this study, Trichloroacetic Acid (a common DBP) was dissolved in water in concentration levels that are common in swimming pool waters. This was used as a medium to grow roots in A. cepa bulbs. The cells of the roots grown in exposure of Trichloroacetic acid (TCAA) were then cytologically analysed. Results showed mitotic abnormalities like micronuclei, bridge formation, fragmentation, stickiness etc. with total abnormalities reaching up to 26.81%. Active Mitotic Index showed a dose dependent reduction with a mito-inhibition of 41.68% at highest treatment dose. Such an assessment of cytotoxic potential of TCAA on plant cell mitosis has rarely been attempted which makes the study novel. This bioassay showed that DPBs definitely have the mutagenic potential even under short term exposure and can become a bigger problem with successive bio-magnification. Hence, it proves the effectiveness of Allium mitosis bioassay in testing cytotoxicity of DBPs.

Effect of sowing methods and spacings on growth and yield attributes of spring maize (Zea mays L.) in Parbat, Nepal

Padmawati Tiwari — 2025-06-25

The study was conducted in Phalewas Municipality, Parbat district, Nepal to assess the effect of two sowing methods (ridge bed and raised bed) and four plant spacings (60×15 cm, 60×20 cm, 60×25 cm and 60×30 cm) on growth and yield characteristics of spring maize for improving the maize yield. This experiment aimed to identify adequate sowing method and optimum spacing using a randomized complete block design with three replications. Results of this study showed that yield attributing characteristics per plant was significantly (p<0.05) impacted with decrement in plant spacing up to 60×15 cm. Likewise, number of cobs per plant, ear length, ear circumference, number of kernels per row, grains per cob was found significantly at par up to 60×20 cm spacing but significantly (p<0.05) higher than 60×15 cm. 60×20 cm spacing was found to have the highest impact on biometrical as well as yield attributes. The grain yield (6.53 Mt/ha) was significantly (p<0.05) higher at 60×20 cm than at 60×25 cm and 60×30 cm but at par with 60×15 cm. There was no discernible effect of the sowing method on the metrics of grain yield between ridge bed and raised bed sowing. However, both bed sowing methods significantly (p<0.05) improved the grain yield of maize (5.78 Mt/ha), compared to the farmer's practice in Parbat district. Therefore, this study suggested that farmers of Parbat can combine 60×20 cm plant spacing with bed sowing methods to maximize the production of maize.

Comparative Analysis of Microbial Contamination in Vegetables Sourced from Farms, Markets, and Street Vendors in Cape Coast, Ghana

Alfred Anthony Darkwa

The safety of fresh vegetables has become a critical public health concern, especially in urban centers where contamination can occur at multiple points along the supply chain. This study investigated the microbial contamination of selected vegetables (lettuce, cabbage, green pepper, and carrot) sourced from farms, markets, and street vendors within the Cape Coast metropolis, Ghana. A total of 24 samples were collected and subjected to microbiological analysis at the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) food microbiology laboratory. The microbial indicators assessed included Aerobic Mesophilic Count, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella species, and Listeria monocytogenes. Results revealed varying levels of microbial contamination across the distribution stages, with Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus being the most commonly detected pathogens. Aerobic Mesophilic Counts ranged from 3.23 to 6.72 log₁₀ CFU/g, and Salmonella species were detected in 16.67% of the samples, while Listeria monocytogenes was absent in all samples. The presence of these pathogens suggests poor hygienic practices in handling, transportation, and vending. The study concluded that cabbage, carrot, and lettuce samples from the Cape Coast Metropolis were found to have high microbial loads which was followed by green pepper samples.

Assessment of levels of heavy metals in some common local spices sold in two markets in Cape Coast-Ghana

Spices enhance aroma, colour and palatability of food and continuous consumption if contaminated may result in accumulation of the contaminants in the body. Exploratory sequential mixed method was used to determine concentrations of Pb, Cu and Cd in common spices from two markets in the Cape Coast Metropolis. Sixty samples of 10 different spices from these markets were analyzed for Pb, Cu and Cd concentrations using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer after acid digestion. Spices selected were frequently purchased per opinions of buyers and sellers. Mean concentrations of Pb (77.33mg/kg) and Cu (31.18mg/kg) were reported while Cd was not detected. Mean concentrations of Pb ranged from 4.50mg/kg to 208.04mg/kg in bay leaf and chilli pepper whereas concentration of Cu ranged from 12.44mg/kg to 139.92mg/kg in rosemary and ginger. Total mean concentration of Pb and Cu in all samples ranged between 20.07mg/kg (Negro pepper) to 119.54mg/kg (chilli pepper) and 12.85mg/kg (Negro pepper) to 87.70mg/kg (ginger). About 80% and 5% of all samples exceeded WHO (2007) permissible limits of 10mg/kg and 50mg/kg for Pb and Cu respectively. With the current menace of illegal mining in Ghana and its associated heavy metal contamination of our foods, more heavy metals must be identified in spices in Ghana.

Evaluation of the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities of algae-mediated zinc oxide nanoparticles

Kanika — 2025-06-25

The current study investigates the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant potential of zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles synthesized using an algal extract as a green, eco-friendly reducing and stabilizing agent. The biosynthesized nanoparticles were characterized using UV-Vis spectroscopy (UV, absorption peak 330 nm) XRD (24 nm crystalline size), SEM (rod shaped morphology) and FTIR (Zn-O bond at 671cm^-1). Anti-inflammatory activity was assessed using the bovine serum albumin (BSA) protein denaturation method showing dose dependent inhibition (28.4-88.0 % at 100- 500 ug/ml; IC₅₀ = 251.64 ug/ml), comparable to ibuprofen (IC₅₀ = 233.60 ug/ml). Antioxidant activity of green synthesised ZnO nanoparticles was evaluated using DPPH free radical scavenging assay (28.8-88.0% at 100- 500 ug/ml; IC₅₀ = 200.06 ug/ml) attaining ~ 85% efficacy of ascorbic acid (IC₅₀ = 171ug/ml). Results showed that ZnO NPs exhibited strong, concentration-dependent anti-inflammatory activity, inhibiting BSA denaturation by 28.4% to 88% over a range of 100–500 µg/mL, with an IC₅₀ value of 251.64 µg/mL, closely comparable that of ibuprofen (IC₅₀=233.6 µg/mL). Moreover, the nanoparticles showed substantial antioxidant activity, with DPPH radical scavenging ranging from 28.8% to 88.9% within the same concentration range, and an IC₅₀ of 200.06 µg/mL—comparable to ascorbic acid (IC₅₀=171 µg/mL). The bioactivities are likely enhanced by the phytochemicals present in A. platensis, such as phenolic compounds and C-phycocyanin. Thus, algae-mediated ZnO nanoparticles exhibit significant anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects in a dose-dependent manner, suggesting their potential as bioactive agents for pharmaceutical and therapeutic applications.

Assessment of physicochemical parameters and heavy metals concentration of leachates from dumpsite around Idemili River, Obosi Nigeria

N.A. Dibua — 2025-06-25

Leachates originating from solid waste dumpsites pollute water bodies, especially in Nigerian urban areas. This study aimed to assess the concentrations of heavy metals and physicochemical parameters in leachates from dumpsite around the Idemili River in Obosi, Nigeria. Physicochemical parameters (pH, temperature, EC, TDS, DO, BOD, turbidity, chloride, nitrate, phosphate, sulphate), heavy metals (Zn, Pb, Cd, Cu, Fe, As) and bacteriological parameters (total and faecal coliforms) were analyzed in leachate and Idemili River water. ANOVA, Tukey’s post-hoc and Pearson correlation were applied to find spatial variations and relationships between physicochemical properties and heavy metals concentration in leachate and water samples. Results revealed significant (p<0.05) contamination, with EC, sulphate, phosphate, nitrate, Fe, Cd and Pb in leachate samples exceeding WHO/NSDWQ limits. Leachate contained significantly higher levels of Fe (4.430±3.231 mg/L), As (4.455±3.1465 mg/L) and Cd (2.8783±2.794 mg/L), suggesting potential leachate infiltration, thereby influencing water quality. Also the leachate and water samples had elevated levels of total and faecal coliforms, exceeding the WHO standards of 10 cfu/mL and 0 cfu/mL, respectively. Results also revealed significant spatial variations in the physicochemical, heavy metals, and bacteriological parameters across various sampling points in leachate and water samples. Therefore, water samples from Idemili River are unsafe for human consumption, and aquatic ecosystems, due to leachates infiltration. It is recommended that governments should adopt inclusive approaches to reducing amount of wastes reaching dumpsites.

Determinants of milk composition and somatic cell count in buffaloes from the Terai belt of Nepal

Nishma Silwal — 2025-06-25

This study aimed to investigate the relationship between somatic cell count (SCC) and various milk quality parameters of buffaloes in the Chitwan district of Nepal during the year 2024. A total of 122 buffalo-owned households were selected using a cross-sectional survey design. Results indicated that average daily milk yield was highest during the first lactation (4.74 kg/day), followed by the second (4.54 kg/day), and third lactation (3.21 kg/day). Conversely, milk fat content showed a decreasing trend across successive lactations. Lactation stage significantly (p<0.05) influenced the milk’s fat, solid-not-fat (SNF), protein, and lactose content. While parity exhibited a marginal correlation with lactose concentration, it did not significantly affect milk yield, fat, SNF, or protein content. A notable finding was that high-yielding buffaloes had significantly (p<0.01) lower fat content than low-yielding counterparts. In contrast, SNF, protein, and lactose percentages were significantly (p<0.01) higher in high-yielding groups compared to low and medium-yielding ones, indicating a substantial impact of production level on milk composition. No statistically significant (p>0.05) differences were observed in SCC and electrical conductivity (EC) across varying levels of milk production, parity, or lactation stages. These findings suggested that SCC and EC are not strongly influenced by these factors under current management conditions. Key challenges identified in the study area included poor hygiene of feeding and milking equipment, unbalanced feeding practices, inadequate waste management, limited infrastructure for milk marketing, and slow adoption of modern dairy technologies.

Performance of rice variety Binadhan-12 as affected by nitrogen management practices under different submergence conditions

Md. Wahidul Islam — 2025-06-25

An experiment was conducted at the Agronomy Field Laboratory, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh during the Aman (summer season) season from August to December to find out the effect of different N management practices on the performance of Binadhan-12 under submerged condition. The experiment was laid out in a split plot design where submergence levels were allocated in the main plots and nitrogen levels were distributed in sub plots with three replications. Four submergence levels (S₀₌Control, S₁=Submergence up to 15 days after seedling establishment, S₂ = Submergence up to 20 days after seedling establishment, S₃ = Submergence up to 25 days after seedling establishment) and five Nitrogen levels (N₀ = Control, N₁= 100 kg N ha^-1 in 3 splits after submergence, N₂ = 150 kg N ha^-1in 3 splits after submergence, N₃ = 100 kg N ha^-1in 2 splits after submergence, N₄ = 150 kg N ha^-1in 2 splits after submergence) were used as treatments. All the crop characters showed significant differences due to the application of nitrogen. When 150 kg N/ha was applied, it showed superior performance for all the crop characters and highest grain yield (2.82 t ha^-1) was obtained from this treatment. In case of submergence level maximum yield (3.49 t ha^-1) was obtained in no
submergence condition. However, in submergence situation, the grain yield of 2.77 t ha^-1 was obtained when 150 kg N/ha was applied with three equal splits until the plants were submerged for 15 days after submergence.

Metals Contamination and its Ecological Risk Assessment in the Coastal Sediments of Badagry Creek, Nigeria

kayode Balogun

This study was carried out to assess heavy metal contamination status and potential ecological risk in Badagry Creek, Nigeria. Concentrations of six heavy metals associated with environmental pollution were determined in the sediments using atomic absorption spectrophotometry. The evaluation of heavy metal pollution was done using the geo-accumulation index (Igeo), modified degree of contamination and potential ecological risk index. Results showed the ranking order of heavy metals in the sediment was Iron (Fe) > Chromium (Cr) > Lead (Pb) > Zinc (Zn) > Copper (Cu) > Cadmium (Cd). Among sampling stations, Fe, Cu, and Zn concentrations varied significantly, whereas Pb, Cr, and Cd showed no significant difference. Igeo results suggested sediment was unpolluted to moderately polluted with heavy metals. Based on the modified degree of contamination, sediments vary from non-contamination to slight contamination with heavy metals. Potential ecological risk to the biological community was at low to moderate risk of heavy metal pollution. Cadmium posed the most substantial risk across the sampling stations. Further research should be undertaken to understand sources, chemistry and potential toxicity of heavy metals in the creek.

Effect of cold air plasma and seaweed extract treatment on wheat seed germination and gene expression under salt stress conditions

J. J. Kadhim — 2025-06-25

This study investigated the potential of cold air plasma (CAP) and seaweed extract (SWE), individually and in combination, to enhance wheat seed germination and molecular responses under salinity stress. A factorial CRD experiment was conducted using four treatment types (control, cold air plasma (CAP), seaweed extract (SWE), CAP+SWE) and four salinity levels (0, 4, 8, and 12 dS/m), with detailed physiological and gene expression analyses. The dual CAP+SWE treatment significantly outperformed all other treatments across key parameters. Germination percentage increased from 63.59% in untreated seeds to 89.42%, while mean germination time decreased from 4.53 to 3.56 days. Radicle length improved from 4.23 cm to 5.44 cm, and total chlorophyll content rose from 34.24 to 40.57 SPAD units. Enzymatic activity also increased, with α-amylase rising from 3.00 to 3.96 U/mg protein and SOD from 84.08 to 92.86 U/g fresh weight under CAP+SWE. At the molecular level, RT-qPCR analysis revealed that the CAP+SWE treatment significantly upregulated salt-responsive genes: P5CS (3.42-fold), NHX1 (3.14-fold), and APX1 (3.18-fold), compared to control levels. Notably, the highest gene expression values were observed at 8 dS/m salinity, suggesting optimal stress-induction synergy. These findings showed that combining physical (CAP) and biological (SWE) priming produces complementary physiological and molecular responses, hence improving the salt stress resistance in wheat. In saline conditions, this combined priming technique is a sensible, environmentally friendly way to raise seed vigour and early growth performance.

Comparative socio-economic analysis of manual and mechanized transplantation method of spring rice (Oryza sativa) production in Chitwan, Nepal

Garima Thapa — 2025-06-25

This study aimed to assess and compare the socioeconomic aspects of mechanized and manual transplantation methods in spring rice production. A survey was conducted in 2024 through pre-tested interview schedules and Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) to collect primary data, while secondary data were collected from relevant publications. A total of 90 farmers (45 using manual transplantation and 45 using mechanized transplantation) were selected through simple random sampling from two purposively chosen municipalities. Among the respondents, 51.1% continued using the traditional manual transplantation method, while 48.9% adopted the mechanized transplantation method, citing cost-effectiveness as a key factor. Similarly, 36.69% of labour cost was accounted for total cost of production in manual transplantation method whereas only 23.45% of labour cost was accounted for total cost of production in mechanized transplantation method. The average gross margin per hectare in mechanized transplantation method (NPR 93325.25/ USD 681.58) was higher than the manual transplantation method (NPR 64654.561/ USD 472.19). Using mechanized transplantation method was more profitable (BCR: 1.76) than using manual transplantation method (BCR: 1.50) in spring rice production. The findings indicated that mechanized transplantation method significantly (p<0.05 reduces dependence on labour and enhances profitability in spring rice production. Therefore, I creased promotion of mechanization, along with policy measures and access to appropriate machinery, could reverse the productivity decline and improve the economic resilience of rice farmers in Chitwan, Nepal.

Soil Carbon Sequestration Status in Nepal: A Review

Kishor Kafle

ABSTRACT

Carbon sequestration is the long-term storage of carbon or other forms of it in soils, vegetation, forests, oceans and geologic formations to either mitigate or put off global warming. The importance of biological carbon fixing through forest, agriculture and biochar in Nepal is globally recognized. In this context this study reports on the findings of published journals in the past fifty years on forests, wetland and agricultural soil. It is found that carbon sequestration through forest management with collaboration with agriculture is important for managing carbon sink maintained in soil. This review focuses on different practices of carbon sequestration in soil applied in Nepal’s agro-ecosystem. The total soil carbon pool of approximately 2300 Pg(petagram) is three times the atmospheric pool of 770 Pg and 3.8 times the vegetation pool of 610 Pg (Lal, 2001). SOC (Soil organic carbon) in Terai and Churia region of Nepal was estimated to be 33.66 t ha^-1 and 31.44 t ha^-1 respectively (DFRS, 2015). Among the overall forest SOC stock, 61.5%, 37.8%, and 0.6% were tree components (live, dead standing, dead wood and underground biomass), forest soils, and litter and debris, respectively (DFSR/MoFSC, 2015). Carbon sequestration through biochar application, an average compost production of 5 tons per year per household has been recorded which corresponds to the sequestration of about 1.2 tons of CO₂ annually for each household (0.24 tons CO₂ is sequestered using one ton of compost. The annual carbon sequestration potentials within rangelands for Nepal is 2.1 million tons. Kafle and Sharma (2020) reported that grassland in Jajarkot Nepal was found to fix 21.19 ton/ha of SOC up to the depth of upper 60 cm in profile. Ojha et al. (2023) concluded that cumulative SOC stock recorded in the whole soil profile (0–60 cm) in cropped land was 58.76 Mg C ha^-1 followed by cropland abandoned for <5 years (56.75 Mg C ha^-1). Long term study about soil carbon sequestration using various types of agricultural crops and forest species in different soil types and climate would be helpful for overcoming the research gaps of carbon sequestration in Nepal.

Key words: Carbon, Organic, Sequestration

Comparative socio-economic analysis of manual and mechanized transplantation method of spring rice (Oryza sativa) production in Chitwan, Nepal

Garima Thapa

Chitwan, one of the most potential district for spring rice production has been experiencing a decline in productivity since 2021/2022 seasons. A survey research was conducted in 2024 to assess and compare the socioeconomic analysis of manual and mechanized transplantation methods in spring rice production in Chitwan. Pre-tested interview schedule and Key Informant Interview (KII) were used to collect the primary information from the respondents, while secondary information were collected by reviewing different relevant publications. Altogether 90 respondents including 45 farmers using manual transplantation and 45 farmers using mechanized transplantation method were selected using simple random sampling from two purposively selected municipalities for the study. The statistical tools, MS- excel, SPSS and STATA were used for data analysis. Among the respondents, 51.1% continued using the traditional manual transplantation method, while 48.9% adopted the mechanized transplantation method, citing cost-effectiveness as a key factor. Similarly, 36.69% of labour cost was accounted for total cost of production in manual transplantation method whereas only 23.45% of labour cost was accounted for total cost of production in mechanized transplantation method. The average gross margin per hectare in mechanized transplantation method (NPR 93325.25) was higher than the manual transplantation method (NPR 64654.561). Using mechanized transplantation method was more profitable (BCR: 1.76) than using manual transplantation method (BCR: 1.50) in spring rice production.

Morphological and genetic diversity of local Sudanese lines of snake melon (Cucumis melo var. flexuosus)

Ashraf Izzeldin Abdalla — 2025-06-25

Snake melon (Cucumis melo var. flexuosus), an underutilized cucurbit with nutritional and cultural significance, is widely cultivated in Sudan but lacks comprehensive morphological and genetic characterization. This study aimed to assess the morphological diversity and genetic relationships among seven Sudanese snake melon genotypes using standardized descriptors and Principal Component Analysis (PCA). Field experiments were conducted during the 2022 winter season in Khartoum North under arid-zone conditions. Both qualitative traits (fruit skin and flesh colour, shape, pubescence,) and quantitative traits (fruit number, weight, size, stem length, and node count) were recorded. Significant (p<0.05) morphological variation was observed among genotypes. Genotype HsD11644 exhibited the highest fruit weight (635.33 g), length (48.57 cm), and vegetative vigor (stem length 181.4 cm), while HsD11555, though compact (stem length 84.67 cm), produced the same number of fruits per plant (11.00) as HsD11644. PCA revealed that the first two principal components explained 97.1% of the total phenotypic variation, with PC₁ (81.96%) correlating strongly with fruit size and vegetative traits, and PC₂ (15.16%) with fruit number. The PCA biplot showed distinct clustering, effectively differentiating genotypes based on their trait profiles. This study provides the first integrated morphological and multivariate analysis of local snake melon lines in Sudan. The identified genetic variability will support the conservation and genetic enhancement of snake melon in Sudan and similar agro-ecological conditions.

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AAES - Editorial Office

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Distribution Characteristics of Free-Living Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria in Solonetz Soil Types

Iosebi gioshvili

This study investigates the solonetz soil type of Eastern Georgia, characterized by a pH of 6.42, moisture content of 12%, and a hydrolyzable nitrogen content of 5.2 mg per 100 g of soil. The study determined the population and genera composition of free-living nitrogen-fixing bacteria per gram of dry soil: Azotobacter (865,155; 22.27%), Beijerinckia (275,167; 7.08%), Azospirillum (2,678,150; 68.94%), and Derxia (65,750; 1.69%). Azospirillum was found to dominate, which correlates with low hydrolyzable nitrogen levels. The results suggest a probable link between the concentration of easily hydrolyzable nitrogen in soil and the distribution of nitrogen-fixing bacteria.

Greenhouse pepper MiMicrolimate, pepper yield and water use under greenhouse condition in a rainforest environment of Nigeria

samuel agele

An experiment was conducted to evaluate microclimate, growth, yield and water use (evapotranspiration: ET) of peppers (Capsicum species: Bell and Habanero) under greenhouse condition. Pepper plants were drip fertigated (irrigation at 100 and 70 % field capacity) and soluble nutrient formulation (0, 60 and 100 of recommended rates of N P K compound fertilizer). A mobile weather station was installed with sensor networks for monitoring microclimate variables (solar radiation, minimum and maximum temperatures, humidity, wind speed and photosynthetic active radiation: PAR) as well as methane (CH₄) and carbon dioxide (CO₂). Pepper evapotranspiration was determined using Penman-Monteith and Hargreaves equations. Agronomic parameters were taken on pepper plants (height and leaf development, number and weight of fruits). Correlation and regression analyses were conducted between some weather and pepper yield variables. A diagnostic algorithm was evaluated using python programming language for yield simulation. Data collected were subjected to statistical analysis using ANOVA test and e significant treatment means were separated at 5 % level of probability.

Results showed that the fertigation regimes significantly influenced the growth and yield of both habanero and bell peppers. Habanero performed best with F₂W₁ (100kgN/ha + 70 %Fc), while Bell pepper benefits from moderate irrigation F₁W₁ (60kgN/ha + 70 %Fc). Tailoring fertigation regimes will enhance productivity and resource efficiency of greenhouse cultivation. Habanero performed best with F₂W₁ (100kgN/ha + 70%Fc), while Bell pepper benefits from moderate irrigation F₁W₁ (60kgN/ha + 70%Fc). These findings confirm the critical role of regulated fertigation for optimizing pepper growth and yield in the greenhouse Maximum fertigation rates (100 kg.ha^-1 NPK and 100 % field capacity watering) produced best growth and yield variables of peppers followed by 100 kg.ha^-1 and 70 % FC. High fertilizer rate combined with moderate watering (70 % FC) was optimal conditions for pepper under greenhouse condition.

The time course of microclimate variables (temperature, humidity, PAR and wind speed) differed during the period of observation (March to June, 2024). Pepper water use (ET) were 4.6 mm.day^-1(Penman Monteith) and 5.1 mm. day ^-1 (Hargreave) while CH₄ and CO₂ were 29.4 and 8.7 ppm respectively. There were both positive and negative associations between pepper yield and water use and weather factors with correlation coefficients (R²) ranging from 0.90 (strong and positive) and 0.023 (weak and positive) and -0.62 (moderate negative) to -0.023 (very week negative). In particular, there were strong but negative correlations between temperature-related variables (maximum temperature (Tmax) and growing degree days (GDD) and fruit weight and water use (ET) and between humidity and Tmax and GDD. The Gradient Boosting Model predicted pepper yield in the greenhouse based on metrics of Mean Absolute Error (MAE: 18.34) and Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE: 24.01). Both MAE and RMSE were used to assess the predictive performance of the model. Information generated on weather, soil and plant can serve as inputs in the development of control system for improving crop yield and resource efficiency of greenhouse practice. Integration of sensor networks with machine learning algorithm offer opportunity for improving real-time decision-making for greenhouse crop production.

Diversity assessment of rice varieties in Khairahani Municipality, Chitwan District, Nepal

Dipak Khanal — 2025-06-25

The study aims to assess varietal diversity in the Khairahani municipality of Chitwan district of Nepal. A cross-sectional survey and stratified random sampling were employed, surveying 100 households across all 13 wards. The survey focused on examining the effectiveness of varieties cultivated by farmers. Rice, the main staple crop in the Chitwan district, was found to consist of 19.20% of hybrid seeds, 9.74% of local seeds, and 71.06% of improved seeds. All hybrid seeds surveyed were registered, with 77.42% improved seeds and 20.59% of local seeds. Additionally, Chaite-5 was the most prevalent variety, followed by Sabitri and Hardinath-1 among the improved varieties, while Gorakhnath 509 dominates the hybrid category. The study applied the Shannon-Wiener Index to analyze genetic diversity, evenness, and richness among rice varieties. The diversity index for the rice genotype in Khairahani was 2.87, indicating an effective number of varieties of 17.71, a richness score of 32, and an evenness score of 0.49, suggesting moderate to high rice diversity. Agro-vets are the main suppliers of seeds, which were found to be 47%, 15% from preserved seeds, 49% from both agro-vet and preserved sources, 15% from co-operatives, and 13% from neighbors. The study suggested that registered hybrids varieties are prevalent due to higher yields, and easy accessibility, but local landraces are at risk due to their low production. Therefore, approaches aimed at promoting local rice varieties are essential for protecting genetic diversity in Khairahani municipality, Chitwan district.

Assessment tof maize varietal diversity in khairharan nepal

Sagar Dhakal

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Phenotypic characterization and adaptability evaluation of Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench) accession for yield and yield related traits Gamo zone, South Ethiopia

Gezahegn Fikre Ergicho

Abstract

Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench) belongs to the family Malvaceae and is a very important vegetable crop grown in tropical and subtropical parts of the world. It is a traditional crop in southwestern, western, and northwestern Ethiopia, but not introduced in to South Ethiopia region. Okra is underutilized vegetable crop, but can be another opportunity to diversify our region’s vegetable production and consumption. Although the region exhibited suitable agro-ecologies for okra production, its distribution and production in the region is not practiced yet. Field experiment was conducted using okra genotypes collected from Ethiopian Biodiversity Institute (EBI) with the objectives of adaptability evaluation, characterization and selection of promising accessions for further crop improvement within the regional. Thirty five accessions and one standard check were evaluated in Mirab Abaya district of Gamo zone in 2022 main cropping season using simple lattice design replicated twice. Each experimental plot consisted of 15 plants with a spacing of 45cm x 30cm between rows and plants respectively. The result showed that thirteen okra accessions had a wide range of variation in growth habits, pod texture, pod size, pod diameter, seed and in their qualitative traits, namely, shape, color, and other quality traits. Thus, based on their adaptability, pod yield and other quality related traits’ performance, ten accessions namely; 240207, 240585, 240591, 240609, 240615, 242444, 29408, 29409, 29411, and 29417 are selected and promoted to regional variety trial.

Influence of Nanoparticles on Growth and Yield Parameters of In Vitro Cultured Broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica)

This study presents a comprehensive evaluation of the effects of various bioactive substances on the growth and yield parameters of broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica) under controlled conditions. Among the treatments, salicylic acid demonstrated the most significant enhancement in plant height, achieving a maximum of 51.49 cm, closely followed by methyl jasmonate (50.19 cm) and zinc oxide nanoparticles (49.87 cm). In contrast, silver nitrate consistently underperformed, resulting in the lowest plant height of 44.37 cm.Chitosan emerged as the most effective treatment for foliage development, recording the highest average leaf count per plant (13.91), with methyl jasmonate (13.83) and copper oxide nanoparticles (13.66) also showing notable efficacy. Conversely, silver nitrate yielded the lowest leaf count (8.33).In terms of curd development, methyl jasmonate significantly increased both curd diameter (11.65 cm) and main curd weight (180.37 g), outperforming zinc oxide and chitosan. Silver nitrate consistently produced the smallest curd diameter (8.09 cm) and the lowest main curd weight (129.37 g). Chitosan was particularly effective in enhancing curd dry weight (18.51 g), with methyl jasmonate (17.55 g) showing comparable results. Silver nitrate again exhibited the least favorable performance, yielding a dry weight of only 8.84 g.

These findings underscore the potential of methyl jasmonate, chitosan, and zinc oxide nanoparticles in optimizing broccoli growth and yield, while highlighting the limited efficacy of silver nitrate under the tested conditions. The study also identifies challenges in optimizing nanoparticle concentrations to mitigate phytotoxicity and ensure consistent physiological responses in in-vitro broccoli plants, providing a foundation for future research in precision agriculture and sustainable crop enhancement strategies.

A Mini Review on Resilience of Indigenous Crops to Climatic and Non-climatic Stressors: A Case from Bajura, Nepal

Bhaskar Gautam

Indigenous crops serve as the foundation of sustenance and cultural heritage in various regions worldwide, including the Triveni, Budi Nanda, and Swami Karthik municipalities in Bajura district, Nepal. The delicate balance between the environment and local farming practices emphasizes the importance of climatic and non-climatic conditions for these crops. Climatic variability, manifested in extreme weather events and changing precipitation patterns, poses a significant threat, exacerbating food shortages and malnutrition. Similarly, non-climatic factors such as soil quality, pests, and human interventions further compound the challenges faced by indigenous communities. This in-depth evaluation summarizes the body of research, highlighting the complex interplay between climatic and non-climatic factors and how they affect crop health and agricultural sustainability. Drawing on an analysis of research gaps, this review underscores the urgent need for comprehensive strategies, including organic farming training, effective pest control measures, and improved access to markets, to mitigate adverse effects. This study suggests a multifaceted strategy to strengthen the resilience of native crops in the face of shifting environmental circumstances and calls for more research to clarify the complex interactions among gender, agriculture, and nutrition in the area.

Farmer’s perception and adaptation strategies to climate change on potato farming in Narayan Municipality of Dailekh district, Nepal

Prabina Budhathoki — 2025-06-25

This study was aimed to assess farmer’s perceptions of climate change and their adaptations in potato farming in Dailekh District, Nepal. A total of 97 randomly selected respondents were selected for the study. Primary data was collected through focus group discussions, direct observation, semi-structured questionnaires while secondary data was collected through review of relevant literature. The data was analyzed using descriptive statistics, time series regression, Logit, and Seemingly Unrelated Regression model (SUR). By analyzing the farmer perception of climate change, 75.26% of the respondent experience climate change. In contrast to 84.5% farmer perceived increased temperature, 94.85% believed decrease rainfall duration with increase in rainfall intensity. The key variables determining the climate change perception of farmer were: socio-economic variables (education, farming experience, and family size) and bio-physical variables (increase in drought, change in insect pests and diseases and lack of irrigation). Based on the study, 58.76% of the farmers adopted climate adaptations. Farmers primarily adapted to climate change through changing potato variety (61.86%),
adjusting planting/harvesting time (64%), changing planting method (71.13%), pest’s management, irrigation, fertilizers, and crop rotation. Logistic regression revealed higher education and attainment of training increased adaptation by 9% and 18.54%, respectively. A link was found between farmers’ perception of climate change and the implementation of some adaptation options. Thus, socioeconomic and biophysical variables have a significant association with adaptation, as well as investment in education, extension training, and access to credit, and can be considered to increase climate change adaptation to improve farmers' well-being.

Phenotypic characterization and adaptability evaluation of Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench) accession for yield and yield related traits Gamo zone, South Ethiopia

Gezahegn Fikre Ergicho

Abstract

Impact of human activities on Ganga River water during Kanwar Mela 2024 in Rishikesh-Haridwar region, Uttarakhand, India

Nitish Kumar — 2025-06-25

The present investigation was conducted to study the water quality of the Ganga River during Kanwar Mela 2024 concerning physicochemical and microbiological characteristics in the Rishikesh-Haridwar region. Water samples were collected from fifteen designated sites, including six in Rishikesh, seven in Haridwar, and two outlet points—one from the main river stream and one from the Ganga canal. Among all sites, Har ki Pauri Ghat (HKP) exhibited the highest average levels of several key indicators of pollution: TDS (125.04 ± 34.18 mg/l), pH (7.52 ± 0.14), alkalinity (94.06 ± 10.31 mg/ml), total hardness (117.56 ± 16.43 mg/ml) BOD (2.41 ± 0.58 mg/l), COD (7.41 ± 0.87 mg/l). This site also recorded the lowest average level of DO (9.81 ± 0.63 mg/l) and the highest microbial contamination, with total coliform (2008.81 ± 188.25 MPN/100ml) and E. coli (884.8 ± 57.62 MPN/100ml), marking it as the most polluted location. The second most polluted site, Purnanand Ghat (PG) in Rishikesh, showed the highest concentration of fluoride (0.10 ± 0.09 mg/l). These findings indicated that mass bathing and associated religious activities during the Kanwar Mela significantly impacted the water quality of the Ganga River, particularly in densely visited pilgrimage zones, contributing to elevated levels of pollution. The outcomes of this study underscore the urgent need for robust water quality monitoring, public health risk assessment, and the implementation of sustainable water management policies during mass gatherings to protect the ecological integrity of the river and safeguard the health of millions who rely on it for religious, domestic, and agricultural purposes.

Dietary crude protein optimization for enhanced growth performance in indigenous chickens during the starter phase

Kiggundu Muhammad — 2025-06-25

Formulating diets that meet the nutrient requirements of indigenous chickens during the starter phase is essential for optimal growth, feed efficiency, profitability, and sustainability in poultry production. This study aimed to evaluate the growth response of indigenous chickens to varying crude protein (CP) concentrations in starter diets and to determine the optimal CP requirement during this phase. A total of 240 days-old chicks were randomly assigned to four iso-caloric starter diets containing 16%, 18%, 20%, and 22% CP, with three replicates per treatment. The birds were housed in deep-litter floor pens with 20 birds per pen, provided ad libitum access to feed and water, and monitored for eight weeks. Weekly data collection included body weight (BW) and feed intake, from which average daily gain (ADG) and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were calculated. Results showed that increasing dietary CP significantly improved growth performance. Final body weight, feed intake, and ADG increased with higher CP levels, with the 22% CP diet yielding the highest final weight (380.8 g) and ADG (12.3 g/day). However, the lowest performance was observed with the 16% CP diet. Feed intake peaked at 1300.9 g for the 22% CP diet, and FCR decreased with increasing CP content. Regression analysis suggested that FCR was optimized at 20.5% CP. These findings highlight the importance of precise CP formulations to enhance growth efficiency and profitability in intensive indigenous chicken production systems.

Environmental factors affecting Trichoderma spp. and their biocontrol potential in post-harvest disease management

Abdulnabi A. A. Matrood — 2025-06-25

Trichoderma species are filamentous fungi inhabiting soil environments and employed in agriculture due to their capacity to enhance plant growth, disease resistance, and tolerance to adverse environmental conditions. This research aimed to examine the influence of NaCl concentration, temperature, pH, and photoperiodicity on the growth of four Trichoderma species, and to evaluate the potential of Trichoderma spp. as a biological control agent against five post-harvest fungal pathogens under laboratory conditions. Mycelial growth of Trichoderma species exhibited a negative correlation with salinity. Maximum growth rates (4.35-4.59 cm) were observed at control salinity (0 µM). Potato Dextrose Agar media consistently supported significantly (p ≤ 0.05) higher mycelial growth (4.33-4.35 cm) than Malt Extract Agar, Carrot Agar, and Komada for all Trichoderma species. The optimal temperature for mycelial growth of Trichoderma spp. ranged from 25-30°C, with maximum growth rates of 4.12-4.40 cm. Temperatures below 20°C and above 35°C resulted in substantial growth reduction, demonstrating temperature's critical influence on mycelial development. Besides, the optimal pH for mycelial growth of Trichoderma spp. ranged from 5 to 7, with maximum growth rates of 4.12-4.43 cm. Mycelial growth of Trichoderma spp. was significantly enhanced under a 12-hour light/dark cycle (4.33-4.43 cm) compared to continuous light (2.24-2.79 cm) and continuous darkness (2.28-2.56 cm) conditions. Therefore, Trichoderma spp. treatments significantly inhibited the mycelial growth of five fungal pathogens compared to the control group, among them, T. koningii demonstrated the highest level of inhibition, ranging from 0.28 cm (B. cinerea) to 1.65 cm (A. niger).

Effect of different postharvest treatments on shelf life and quality of banana (Musa spp.) at Charikot, Dolakha, Nepal

Rosna Devkota — 2025-06-25

This experiment was carried out in the laboratory of Rural Development Tuki Association, Charikot, Dolakha, Nepal to study the shelf life and physio-chemical parameters of banana. The design of the experiment was completely randomized design (CRD) with 7 treatments and 3 replications with 7 destructive and 5 non-destructive samples. Samples were kept under different packaging materials. The treatments included as control, unperforated bag, perforated bag, unperforated bag with KMnO₄, perforated bag with KMnO₄, unperforated bag treated with CaCl₂, perforated bag treated with CaCl₂. The data were collected from the destructive and non-destructive sample in 2 days’ interval and MS-EXCEL and R-STUDIO was used for the data analysis. The highest physiological weight loss of banana was in control (23.33%)and lowest in unperforated polybag (0.66%), unperforated polybag with CaCl₂(0.73%), unperforated polybag with KMnO₄ (1.53%) in 12 days after treatment. The highest shelf life of banana was in unperforated bags with KMnO₄ (19 days) while the lowest shelf life was observed in control (9 days). The highest pulp to peel ratio was observed in control (2.23) while the lowest pulp to peel ratio was in unperforated bags with KMnO₄ (1.46). The pH showed insignificant result and similarly TSS showed insignificant result till 6 DAT while control showed highest (14) and lowest was found in unperforated polybag with KMnO₄ (9.33) and unperforated polybag (9.33) at 12 days after treatment. Thus, unperforated polybag with KMnO₄ could be used to enhance post-harvest life of banana.

Dynamics of Remittance Inflows and their effect on Nepal’s GDP

Remittance inflows have become a crucial component of Nepal’s economy, significantly contributing to GDP growth, poverty reduction, and foreign exchange reserves. Remittances have emerged as a crucial component of Nepal's economy, significantly influencing consumption, investment, and economic stability. For underdeveloped nations like Nepal, remittances are a significant source of foreign revenue. Remittance occupies nearly one-fourth of the national GDP. It has been a dominant source of foreign currency for the last decades. Examining the existing patterns and the role of remittances in the Nepalese economy is the goal of this research work.3 This is a review-based research paper with having descriptive research design. In order to gather information and describe the findings based on the study goal, secondary data are utilized. According to the findings, Nepal has one of the highest remittance contributions to GDP among South Asian nations. Remittance and GDP revealed a positive relationship. Remittances are mostly used to cover consumption demands rather than making investments in industries that generate income. The government should provide a favorable environment in addition to suitable policy for investing remittance money in the productive sector for long-term economic sustainability. This paper examines the dynamics of remittance inflows into Nepal, analyzing their trends, sources, and macroeconomic effects. Using empirical data from the Nepal Rastra Bank (NRB), the World Bank, and other relevant studies, this review highlights the positive and negative implications of remittance dependence. It also identifies challenges and provides policy recommendations for enhancing the productive utilization of remittances.

Comparative economic analysis of Maize seed and grain production in Gulmi, Nepal

Naran Prasad Devkota Devkota

Serious hurdles plague maize cultivation in Nepal’s mid-hills, which poses many bottlenecks to commercialization and productivity. This study investigates the dynamics of maize production and commercialization in the Ishma, Malika, and Madane Rural Municipalities of Gulmi district, where maize seed and grain production has potential. The findings reveal that, while seed producers are marginally younger, their household heads perform much better than grain producers on all three family size, economic activity, and labor use criteria. Better seed and better inputs (labor and manure) benefit seed producers and increase the production cost. Although they average the same maize yield, seed producers obtain higher returns as their total return is NRs. 140669.2, compared with only NRs. 68,036.42 for grain producers. For Gulmi, maize seed production is more profitable than grain production (1.47: 1.31, respectively) as indicated by the Benefit-to-Cost ratio (B: C). Similarly, seed producers were found to have a higher (1.204) return to scale than grain producers (1.147). Production obstacles include shortages of workers, problems with pests and diseases, poor infrastructure, and lack of technical expertise. These challenges are exacerbated by marketing problems, such as distance to market and low seasonal prices, which make commercialization difficult. According to the Cobb-Douglas production function analysis, the increased cost in intercultural operations, pre-sowing operations, and post-harvest activities leads to higher income for seed and grain producers. The results pinpoint the need for improved access to inputs, technical training, and better infrastructure to enhance the maize production efficiency and commercialization in Gulmi.

Pesticide use in banana cultivation: Insights into farmers’ knowledge and practices in Nawalparasi west, Nepal

Prapti Ghimire — 2025-06-25

Banana is one of the most important fruit crops in Nawalparasi West Nepal’s serving as a significant production hub. This study was aimed to investigate the knowledge and practices of 100 randomly selected banana farmers regarding pesticide use in two rural municipalities of Nawalparasi West, Nepal. The data was collected through structured survey and were analyzed using MS- Excel and Statistical Package of Social Sciences (SPSS). The study revealed a significant (p<0.05) gap in knowledge with 45% farmers unaware of pesticide labels and only 33% farmers being knowledgeable of Restricted Entry Interval (REI). Despite the widespread reliance on chemical pesticides, only 29% farmers had received training on safe handling practices while 70% farmers had no knowledge on banned pesticides in Nepal. Also, Sigatoka leaf spot and Banana leaf and fruit scarring beetle was highlighted as the major disease and insect affecting banana farming. Among protective measures were insufficient, 82% farmers using only masks but fewer adopting gloves (4%) or aprons (3%) during application of pesticides. Health issues such as burning sensation and skin irritation were commonly reported due to pesticide exposure. Additionally, unsafe storage of pesticide cans and containers were observed, and only 30% farmers storing them in separate storage houses. The study underscores the urgent need for targeted training programs to promote Integrated Pest Management (IPM) and safe pesticide handling practices. Enhancing farmers’ awareness through extension activities and policy interventions is critical to mitigate health risks and environmental damage.

Growth performance of Eucalyptus camaldulensis across two distinct sites in Sindhuli district of Nepal

Sima Lamichhane — 2025-06-25

This study evaluated the site-specific growth performance of Eucalyptus camaldulensis plantations in Nepal’s Sindhuli district, comparing -terraced agricultural land (Site 1) and flatland (Site 2) over nine years. The aim was to quantify differences in growth parameters and soil properties to perform sustainable plantation management. Diameter at breast height (DBH), height, basal area, volume, and above-ground total biomass (AGTB) were measured for 314 trees, alongside soil nutrients analysis (pH, organic carbon, N, P, K) from 43 plots. Statistical analyses (Welch’s t-test, regression) were employed to assess site variations. Results revealed significantly (p < 0.001) superior growth in Site 2, with higher mean DBH (9.00 ± 2.61 cm vs. 6.95 ± 3.71 cm), height (7.88 ± 0.80 m vs. 7.01 ± 1.97 m), and AGTB (26.96 ± 17.11 kg vs. 20.48 ± 34.16 kg) compared to Site 1. Volume distribution also significantly (p < 0.001) favored at Site 2 across all diameter classes (e.g., >15 cm: 0.16 m³ vs. 0.12 m³). Soil pH was significantly lower in Site 2 (4.72 vs. 5.48, p < 0.05), likely due to Eucalyptus litter acidity, though other nutrients remained comparable. Regression confirmed DBH and height as robust predictors of volume (R² = 0.955). The findings highlighted the flatland topography as optimal for E. camaldulensis productivity, driven by favorable microclimatic and edaphic conditions. Therefore, this study recommends strategic site selection prioritizing flatlands and pH-adjusted soil management to enhance carbon sequestration and timber yields, offering actionable insights for agroforestry resilience in Nepal’s mid-hills.

Zero-Waste Mushroom Cultivation: Turn Maize Cobs into Edible Gold

This article examines a cutting-edge zero-waste method of mushroom cultivation that uses maize cobs a common agricultural waste product as a substrate. This technique uses maize cobs to grow edible mushrooms like oysters (Pleurotus spp. ) while also reducing organic waste and offering a cheap nutrient-rich growing medium. along with Shiitake (Lentinula edodes). The nutritional makeup biodegradability and efficacy of maize cobs in promoting fungal growth are highlighted in the study. It also talks about the advantages for the economy and environment of using substrates made from maize cobs in both commercial and small-scale mushroom production. This zero-waste approach lessens reliance on traditional wood-based substrates while supporting circular agriculture food security and sustainable farming. For mushroom growers looking for economical and environmentally friendly cultivation techniques the results indicate that maize cobs may be a good substitute.

Optimizing Mandarin Farming in Gorkha, Nepal: A Holistic Framework for Sustainability, Productivity, and Disease Control

Various agronomic and disease management challenges threaten the productivity and sustainability of mandarin growing in Gorkha, Nepal. The main objective of this study is to investigate the cultivation practices, disease management strategies, and socio-economic factors that influence the production of mandarin in Gorkha Municipality for the increase in both sustainability and production. Primary data were collected through field surveys involving 60 Mandarin farmers using a purposive random sampling method from a sample frame of Mandarin farmers to get farmers with different farm practices while secondary data were taken from government publications. The data was analyzed using descriptive statistics and preferential analysis. Focusing on socio-demographic factors (age, gender, education level, farming experience), as well as agricultural practices (planting technique, disease management, and input use), the study analyses them. The findings indicate a variety of difficulties, ranging from pest and disease control to irrigation problems and little awareness of the use of high-tech cultivation practices. Although quite common practices like training, pruning, and Bordeaux mixture application are adopted, there are still gaps in disease management, and the usage of modern technologies including soil testing and plant hormones. However, as a result, the study reveals the necessity of giving farmers more education, facilitating access to resources, and the formation of synergies to fill such gaps. Improving sustainability in Mandarin farming in Gorkha will directly contribute to the overall goals of agricultural development and aims to support the livelihood of local farmers.

Zero-Waste Mushroom Cultivation: Turn Maize Cobs into Edible Gold

Aditya Siwakoti

Mushroom cultivation is a sustainable and profitable agricultural practice, but substrate selection plays a crucial role in optimizing yield and minimizing environmental impact. This article explores an innovative zero-waste approach to mushroom farming by utilizing maize cobs—a readily available agricultural byproduct—as a substrate. By repurposing maize cobs, this method not only reduces organic waste but also provides an affordable and nutrient-rich medium for growing edible mushrooms such as Oyster (Pleurotus spp.) and Shiitake (Lentinula edodes). The study highlights the nutritional composition of maize cobs, their biodegradability, and their effectiveness in supporting fungal growth. Additionally, it discusses the economic and environmental benefits of integrating maize cob-based substrates into small-scale and commercial mushroom production. This zero-waste model contributes to circular agriculture, promoting food security and sustainable farming while reducing dependency on conventional wood-based substrates. The findings suggest that maize cobs can be a viable alternative for mushroom growers seeking eco-friendly and cost-effective cultivation methods.

SYNERGISTIC EFFECT OF RHIZOBIUM INOCULATION AND MICRONUTRIENTS (MOLYBDENUM AND BORON) LOADING ON THE GROWTH AND YIELD OF LOCAL BLACKGRAM

Shankar Bhandari Shankar Bhandari

The productivity of the local variety of blackgram is low due to poor nutrient management in mid-hills. The micronutrients, particularly Boron (B) and Molybdenum (Mo) have benefited growth, nodulation and yield parameters. Thus, a field trial was conducted during rainy seasons at the agronomy farm of Lamjung Campus, Sundarbazar in a split-plot design replicated thrice with Rhizobium inoculation as the main plot factor (inoculation and non-inoculation) and seven levels of Boron and Molybdenum as subplot factor (control, 250 ppm and 500 ppm B and Mo each and two combinations of lower and higher doses of B and Mo respectively). Boric acid and Sodium molybdate were used as the source of B and Mo respectively. Data were taken at 30, 45, 60 Days after sowing (DAS). In comparison to non-inoculated seeds, Rhizobium inoculated resulted in increased in plant height (94.23cm), pod length (4.18cm), branch numbers (9), nodules number (19), seed per pod (6), and grain yield (560 kg/ha). The higher doses of B and Mo showed more significant result in plant height (112.16cm), number of nodule count (22), pod length (4.4 cm) seed per pod (6), number of pods per plant (29), number of branches (11) across the treatments at maturity stage. The study revealed that test weight (62.35g) and grain yield (572.24 kg /ha) was heavier at 500 ppm B+500 ppm Mo at significance level P<0.05. There was no significant difference between interaction of rhizobium inoculation and micronutrient loading, which might have occurred due to heavy leaching. So further research experiment is suggested under controlled conditions, maintaining similar levels of B and Mo with Rhizobium.

The Current Status and Prospects of the Rice Processing Sector in the Fogera Plain, Northwestern Ethiopia: A Comprehensive Overview and Analysis

Dessye B. Tikuneh

Ethiopia's rice cultivation has seen substantial growth since the 1970s. Domestic production increased from 170,630.1 tons in the 2019/2020 agricultural year to 268,223.5 tons in the 2020/2021 agricultural year. This study thoroughly explores the critical challenges and abundant opportunities within the rice processing industry of the Fogera Plain, underscoring its significant potential for growth and development. The most commonly used rice milling machine models are the N90 and Nx110, which hold 42.64% and 18.60% of the market share, respectively. From 1998 to 2023, the rice milling industry in the Fogera Plain installed an average of 6.15 new machines each year, with a mean annual growth rate of 5.25%. A survey reveals that the types of processing machines are critical investments for rice processors, with market shares of 75.97%, 23.25%, and 0.78% for one-pass Engelberg, two-pass SB series, and multilevel machines, respectively. Limited investment in milled rice quality has led to lower efficiency and quality in electrically operated rice milling machines. A lack of understanding of proper processing methods means milling capacities often fall short of manufacturers' standards. As a result, processing times and operational costs increase, leading to higher energy consumption and poor rice quality, marked by broken grains and reduced market value. The profitability and competitiveness of domestic rice is adversely affected by several factors. Maintenance and repair of rice milling machines present significant challenges, with costs closely related to the machines' age and quality. Despite these challenges, Ethiopia's rice milling industry provides employment opportunities: 30.86% of workers are involved in commercial milling, while 4.94% work in custom milling. Notably, 61.73% of workers are engaged in both commercial and custom milling operations. To produce high-quality rice, it is crucial to ensure the quality of paddy, employ skilled labor, and use efficient milling machines. Middlemen and traders acquire paddy directly from farmers' gates and village mini-markets, yet rural farmers face challenges like poor road infrastructure, market isolation, a lack of vehicles, and inefficient truck logistics. These factors increase transportation costs and hinder commercialization. Several elements influence the sales of milled rice, including producers' reliance on processing services, the dual roles of processors as both millers and traders, and the limited incentives for producing high-quality products. Ethiopian millers distribute milled rice to various stakeholders, including wholesalers, retailers, middlemen, and consumers. Rice processors primarily focus on cleaning the husk and bran of paddy rice, acting as both buyers and traders while charging similar fees for their processing services. The peak months for rice processing workload are November, December, January, and February, during which 75% of the annual workload is completed. Tax incentives and strategic marketing boost competitiveness and growth in processing. Stronger cooperatives and joint-stock companies improve marketing and market reach through collaboration with governmental and non-governmental organizations. Maintaining 12-16% moisture during milling is crucial for high-quality rice. While better quality increases yields and profitability, high production costs can deter premium rice production. Effective post-harvest management, quality differentiation, robust supply chains, and educational initiatives are key to enhancing milled rice quality.

A comprehensive review on drought stress in wheat: Causes, mechanism and management practices

2025-03-25

Plant health is cornerstone for agricultue productivity and food security. Severe impacts have been observed in wheat crop including physiological, morphological and bio chemical components as a result of water insufficiency. Seedling growth aspects such as seedling length, length of primary roots, seedling dry weight, and germination percentage are also affected whenever water scarcity prevails in the soil. Early flag leaf senescence decreased the grain yield of wheat while a delay in flag leaf senescence enhanced the grain yield of wheat under drought stress. Physiological phenomena like chlorophyll content, photosynthesis rate, rate of evapotranspiration, and relative water content in wheat are affected by water scarcity in soil. Proline content, osmotic adjustment, and abscisic acid accumulations are affected in periods of water deficit in wheat. Escape, avoidance, recovery, and tolerance meachanism appear in the wheat crop to sort out drought stress. More effective and suitable drought-resistant wheat cultivars producing through advanced techniques are pivotal to combat against drought stress as well as for higher yield and sustainability purposes. In this paper we discussed the causes, mechanism and management practices of drought stress in wheat.

Prospecting the potential of black turmeric herbal tea: Cultivation, processing, preparation and marketable characteristics

Temin Payum — 2025-03-25

Curcuma caesia Roxb. locally called Kali Haldi in India, is a well-known medicinal herb, traditionally used in the management of many health problems including high blood pressure, stomach pain, diarrhea, muscle stiffness, nerve injury, ulcer, cancer, acidity, stomach bloat, gastric, weight management and joint pain. This herb is found to be gown in almost all Indian kitchen yard without any product to be sold in market. The present work explores the potential of unexplored C. caesia in the domain of sustainable agro-farming, the herbal tea industry, its cultivation, processing, preventive medicine, and marketable features for the employment generation. The major objectives of this study were to explore the potential of the shoot parts of the C. caesia as an herbal tea and explore the potential of C. caesia as a means of alternative livelihood, development of a healthy alternative beverage. Manual labour activities were used in cultivation, hybrid methods of dehydration and maceration were used in the processing of herbal tea and packaging were done manually, Door to door marketing and word of mouth were used in the marketing of C. caesia herbal tea. For the first time, the study reports the leaves of C. caesia as a source of herbal tea, the study also reports potential of C. caesia in relation with agro industry prospects, sustainable development, preventive medicine, employment generation and healthy beverage. The present study is a contribution to the mankind in the introduction of C. caesia as herbal health tea and put forwards the lines “Let Tea Be a Medicine and Medicine Be a Tea”.

Enhancing wheat yield through strategic irrigation management

Md. Zinnatul Islam — 2025-03-25

To assess the irrigation strategies, an experiment was conducted with three wheat varieties viz. BARI Gom-19, BARI Gom-21, and BARI Gom-24 and four levels of irrigation viz. no irrigation (control), one irrigation at the crown root initiation (CRI) stage [17 days after sowing (DAS)], two irrigations at CRI (17 DAS) and the booting stage (52 DAS), and three irrigations at CRI (17 DAS), the booting stage (52 DAS), and the heading stage (67 DAS). Variety, irrigation and their association revealed notable impact on the yield of wheat. Within the three varieties tested, BARI Gom-24 demonstrated the highest performance, producing the greatest total tillers/hill (4.43), effective tillers/hill (3.75), grains/spike (40.55), 1000-grain weight (53.93 g), and grain yield (4.41 t/ha). Regarding irrigation, the best results were achieved with three irrigation applications, resulting in the tallest plants (96.22 cm), the highest total tillers/hill (4.79), effective tillers/hill (4.17), grains/spike (44.36), 1000-grain weight (55.38 g), and grain yield (4.35 t/ha). When combining variety and irrigation, BARI Gom-24 with three irrigations produced the tallest plants (99.13 cm), the highest total tillers/hill (4.93), effective tillers/hill (4.33), grains/spike (46.39), 1000-grain weight (55.80 g), and grain yield (4.41 t/ha). All these parameters showed significantly lower performance under no-irrigation conditions. The findings suggest that providing thrice irrigations at the CRI, booting, and heading stages is the optimal strategy for maximizing wheat yield with BARI Gom-24.

Evaluation of maize hybrids for agro-morphological traits and grain yield during winter season at Rampur, Chitwan, Nepal

Bijay Mahato — 2025-06-25

Maize is a vital cereal crop in Nepal, contributing to food security and livestock feed. Enhancing its productivity through high-yielding maize hybrids is essential to meet the increasing demand. This study aimed to evaluate the performance of maize hybrids based on agro-morphological traits, yield-attributing parameters, and flowering attributes to identify promising hybrids for cultivation in maize growing regions of Nepal. The experiment was conducted during the winter season of the year 2023 at the National Maize Research Program (NMRP), Rampur, Chitwan, Nepal, using a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with three replications. Data were collected on days to 50% flowering and silking, plant height, cob height, ear number per hectare, kernel rows per cob, kernel count per row, and grain yield. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) and correlation analysis were performed to assess variability and trait relationships with yield. Results showed the significant (p<0.05/p<0.01) differences among hybrids, with the commercial hybrid SULTAN achieving the highest grain yield (11.00 t/ha), followed by CML161/RML96 (10.68 t/ha) and RML36/RML2244 (9.87 t/ha), both statistically on par with SULTAN. These hybrids outperformed the national checks Rampur Hybrid 10 (4.82 t/ha) and Rampur Hybrid 16 (7.11 t/ha). Correlation analysis indicated strong positive associations between grain yield and plant height, cob height, kernel rows per cob, and kernel count per row. Therefore, maize hybrids demonstrating superior yield potential and favorable trait combinations will advance to multi-location trials, holding promise as future recommendations for the inner terai maize-growing zones of Nepal.

Evaluation of yield and agronomic traits of spring rice (Oryza sativa L.) genotypes in sub-tropical zone of Sunsari, Nepal

Bijay Mahato — 2025-06-25

Rice is a high-value economic crop and a primary food source for a large portion of the global population. Enhancing its potential yield is crucial to meet the growing food demands driven by population increase and changing climatic conditions. This research work was aimed to evaluate the phenological, morphological, and yield-contributing characters of seven genotypes of rice, a check variety (Chaite-5), under the prevailing spring season conditions to choose good genotypes with better productivity for potential cultivation in such agro-climatic regions. The experiment was conducted in spring season during the year 2024 under a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications on the research farm. Phenological, morphological, and yield traits like yield, biomass production, harvest index, grains/spike, and sterility percentage were taken into consideration. Statistical analysis with correlation coefficients was carried out to ascertain the relationship between traits and grain yield. The results revealed significant (p<0.05) genetic variability among the genotypes. Among them, IR 17L 1420 was recorded with highest biomass and grain yield, while IR 16L 1619
exhibited the highest harvest index of rice. In contrast, the check variety Chaite-5 demonstrated lower productivity and higher sterility. Correlation analysis showed significant and positive relationships between grain yield and traits such as biomass, harvest index, and grains per spike of rice. These findings suggest that selecting genotypes with high biomass, superior harvest index, and low sterility rates could effectively enhance rice productivity. The study provides valuable insights for rice breeding programs and cultivar improvement under spring-season cultivation conditions.

Evaluation of Maize Hybrids for Agro-Morphological Traits and Grain Yield in Inner-Terai Nepal

The experiment was conducted during the winter season of 2023 at the National Maize Research Program (NMRP) in Rampur, Chitwan, Nepal. A Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with three replications was used to evaluate various quantitative and qualitative traits, including agro-morphological characteristics, yield-contributing factors, and flowering attributes. Analysis of variance revealed significant differences among the tested hybrids for all measured traits. The commercial hybrid SULTAN recorded the highest grain yield (11.00 tons/ha), followed closely by CML161/RML96 (10.68 tons/ha) and RML36/RML2244 (9.87 tons/ha), both of which performed statistically at par with SULTAN. These hybrids significantly outperformed the national checks Rampur Hybrid 10 (4.82 tons/ha) and Rampur Hybrid 16 (7.11 tons/ha). Additionally, traits such as days to 50% flowering and silking, plant height, cob height, ear number per hectare, kernel rows per cob, and kernel count per row exhibited strong positive correlations with grain yield, highlighting their importance as selection criteria in maize breeding. Hybrids demonstrating superior yield potential and favorable trait combinations will advance to multi-location trials, holding promise as future recommendations for the inner terai maize-growing zones of Nepal.

NANO FERTILIZER: A REVOLUTION IN PRECISION AGRICULTURE AND CROP PRODUCTIVITY

One recent development in contemporary agriculture that helps get around the drawbacks of the traditional fertilizer system is nano-fertilizer. This kind of fertilizer, is incredibly effective at giving plants nutrients. The plant's nutritional absorption process is consistent and waste is minimal because of their small size, which allows them to enter the tiny hole in the soil and release the nutrient gradually. Nano-fertilizer uses extremely small amounts to guarantee high yields and superior quality. Numerous studies have demonstrated that the nutritional absorbent efficiency of nano-fertilizers is roughly 20–30% higher than that of conventional fertilizers, which results in a discernible increase in crop productivity and growth. Additionally, by lowering the possibility of environmental contamination and preserving the soil's chemical equilibrium, this technology is crucial to the advancement of sustainable agriculture. The broad use of the nano-fertilizer is not without its difficulties, though. This technology takes time to become widely accepted because of its high production costs, technical complexity, and security issues. There is a need for scientific research, advanced technology and clear policy making to overcome these challenges. This review will be discussed extensively on the scientific basis, procedure, types, benefits, limitations and future prospects of the nano-fertilizer. By applying this technology in modern perfect agriculture and analyzing its potential impact, readers have aimed to provide evidence of a new horizon of sustainable development through nano-fertilizer.

Soil loss estimation and mapping of water erosion management strategies in the Northern region of Rwanda

Martin Nizeyimana — 2025-06-25

This study was conducted in Gakenke, Musanze and Rulindo districts in northern province of Rwanda from December 2019 to October 2021 to determine Soil and Water Conservation (SWC) status, mapping soil erosion areas, annual estimation of soil loss and spatial distribution in northern Rwanda. The study used Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE)
model based on erosivity index, erodibility of soil, slope steepness, slope distance, vegetation covers and conservation practice parameters generated through arc GIS. The utilized data included the Digital Elevation Model (DEM) for production of slope steepness. Landsat 8 have been processed in ERDAS Imagine 2014 for land use and land cover. Field data for conservation practice factor and rainfall data for soil erosivity in Google Earth Pro and ArcGIS respectively have been produced. The results indicated that the forest was identified as the largest area covering of 84.08% followed by built up areas with 10.43%, radical terraces account for 4.45 %, bare soil (3.23%), agroforestry (0.77%), waterbodies (0.727%), riverbanks (0.38%), and wetland (0.35%). The average rate of water erosion was discovered as 72 t. ha^–1. y^–1 and
observed that soil erosion is more severe in steep areas than in other places. Inadequate erosion control management results as the cause of spatial distribution of erosion. Thus, it is advisable to prioritize soil and water management practices in steep and mid-elevation unprotected areas before applying them to lower elevations.

Quality assessment of commercial tomato paste in Kurdistan region of Iraq: Implications for agripreneurship and market standards

Roshna Akram Ali — 2025-06-25

A study was conducted to compare the physiochemical properties of various popular tomato paste brands (TP). The canned tomato paste samples were procured from local markets in Sulaimani, Kurdistan-Iraq, during the year 2023-2024. The physiochemical composition of six tomato paste samples, representing different brands (TP₁, TP₂, TP₃, TP₄, TP₅, and TP₆), was assessed. The analyzed parameters included such as pH level, titratable acidity (TA) %, total solids (T.S) %, ^oBrix, moisture content %, total sugar, and ash %. The results showed that the pH values spanned from 4.14 (TP₂) to 4.377 (TP₃) brands, while the titratable acidity ranged between 1.34% and 2.41%. The TP₃ brand had the highest total solids (34.95%) and the lowest moisture content (65.05%), whereas TP₅ had the lowest total solids (28.64%) and the highest moisture content (71.36%). Moreover, the maximum Brix and total sugar were noted with TP₄ (29.26) but total sugar in TP₆ (1.38%), and the minimum Brix was recorded from TP₅ (26.50) but total sugar in TP₃ (0.92%). Ash content, indicating mineral content the Ash in tomato paste were indicated by using Furnace at 600 ^oC, the TP₆ brand was the highest level of ash about 5.20%, but the lowest level in TP₅ (3.47%). These results indicated that tomato paste was safe to consumption. This study helps to raise consumer awareness and offers useful insights for improving local tomato paste production to enhance product quality, support the local businesses, and benefit of both the producers and buyers economically.

Impact of agricultural subsidy on three cereal crops cultivated in Dailekh district, Nepal

Namuna Khatri — 2025-06-25

This study aimed to investigate the impact of agricultural subsidies on the three primary cereal crops—rice, maize, and wheat in Dailekh district of Karnali province, Nepal and to evaluate the current status of subsidies, their impact on agricultural cultivation, and the variables affecting their allocation. The data was collected through a scheduled of semi-structured surveys and interviews from Narayan municipality of Dailekh district. Data was collected from 100 respondents, among them 60 were subsidy recipients and 40 were non-recipient, using a random sampling technique. A logistic regression model was used to determine the main factors affecting access to subsidies, such as gender, cooperative membership, farm size, and educational attainment. The results showed that the cost NPR 12,283 (90.94$) and NPR 17,625 (130.49$) on land preparation for rice cultivation; NPR 2,737 (20.26$) NPR 9,973 (73.84$) on land preparation for maize cultivation, while NPR 7,010 (51.90$) and NPR 9,417 (69.72$) on land preparation for wheat cultivation was found to be significantly (p<0.01) different among the subsidy recipients and subsidy non-recipient’s farmers, respectively. Similarly, cost of seeds of rice, maize and wheat was also found to be significantly (p<0.05) different between the subsidy recipients and subsidy non-recipient’s farmers. The findings emphasize that targeted and effective subsidy programs should be required to increase the cereal production in Dailekh district of Nepal. Thus, policymakers should concentrate on enhancing marginalized farmer’s access to subsidies, guaranteeing distribution transparency, and launching training programs in order to optimize the advantages of agricultural support programs.

Agroforestry and traditional knowledge: Lessons from indigenous practices in South Asian Countries: A review

Rajesh Prasad Dahal — 2025-03-25

Agroforestry is deeply rooted in South Asian tradition as an important and dynamic land-use system that integrates agriculture and forestry. The review sums up indigenous agroforestry practices in South Asian countries, drawing attention to the multi-dimensional benefits obtained through such practices: food security, biodiversity conservation, and economic resilience. Systems such as multifunctional home gardens, Agri silviculture, silvopasture, and the Taungya system represent the innovative approaches developed in the region to integrate trees, crops, and livestock. The traditional knowledge contributing to such sustainable management is often passed down through generations. These indigenous practices, including home gardens and alley cropping, have ensured continued adaptation to evolving environmental and socioeconomic pressures, and lessons learned contribute to modern-day land management in the face of climate change and urbanization. Active women's involvement secures ecological balance and economic stability, representing the sociocultural dimensions of agroforestry. However, globalization, population pressure, and gaps in policies have confronted these practices, which has marginalized indigenous communities and shifted them towards more market-driven agricultural systems. Countries like Nepal and India have provided a policy impetus to agroforestry yet lack of integration and support remains one of the major obstacles. This review signals the importance of policy reforms that integrate traditional knowledge for sustainable development. Integration of indigenous knowledge with modern techniques of agroforestry could contribute to food security challenges, ecological resilience, and cultural heritage in South Asia. The authors call for increased institutional support and inclusive governance to mainstream agroforestry as a sustainable land-use strategy in the region.

Integrated nutrient management for watermelon (Citrullus lanatus Thunb) cultivation in Rapti riverbed, Dang, Nepal

Poonam Sapkota — 2025-06-25

A field experiment was conducted at riverbed of Rapti River, Dang, Nepal from January to June, 2019 to assess the integrated nutrients management (INM) for watermelon cultivation at riverbed. The experiment was laid out in Randomized Complete Block Design with three replications and eight treatments (compost manure + chemical fertilizer, vermicompost + chemical fertilizer, neem seedcake powder+ chemical fertilizer, poultry manure+ chemical fertilizer, cattle manure+ chemical fertilizer, 100% from chemical fertilizer alone, control, and farmers practice).“Mastana” variety of watermelon was used for evaluating various combination of organic and inorganic fertilizer for yield, nutrient uptake and residual soil nutrient status. Among these treatments, neem seedcake powder (55 N kgha^-1) + N, P₂O, K₂O (55:40:40 kgha^-1) from inorganic fertilizer was better with growth parameters such as vine length, number of branches, number of leaves and yield parameters like fruit weight/plant and yield (tha^-1) than other treatments and significantly superior to control plot. Effect of INM on soil parameters like soil pH, total nitrogen (%), available phosphorus (kgha^-1) and available potassium (kgha^-1) at 0-20 and 20-50 cm depth and organic manure (%) at soil depth 20-50 cm were non-significant. The organic manure content at 0-20 cm depth was highest when neem seedcake powder+ chemical fertilizer was applied which was statistically similar with other treatments of INM but significantly higher than full dose of NPK from chemical fertilizer and control. Therefore, integration of neem seedcake powder (55N kgha^-1) with chemical fertilizer NPK (55: 40: 40 kgha^-1) would be best fitted for watermelon, in riverbed cultivation.

Evaluation of sunflower germplasms for salt tolerance based on morpho-physiological and yield attributes

Md. Zulfiqar — 2025-06-25

The effects of salinity on sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) germplasms growth, morpho-physiological traits and yield attributes among six varieties was studied to identify potential salt-tolerant sunflower varieties for cultivation in saline-prone areas of Bangladesh. For this, an experiment was conducted at Bangladesh Agricultural University in a net house from January 2019 to May 2019. Results showed that all varieties of sunflower exhibited significant (p<0.05) alterations to morphological characteristics aside from stem diameter under salt stress conditions. The physiological changes were also induced, except for one measure of photochemical efficiency. Notably, relative chlorophyll content, photosynthesis rate, transpiration rate, and total chlorophyll content shifted in a variety dependent manner. However, maximum photochemical efficiency did not statistically differ between varieties impacted by saline soils. Additionally, salt exposure impacted seed yield aspects such as filled and sterile seed counts per head, total seed weight per individual flower, and 1000-seed mass, with prominent variations among the tested varieties of sunflower. Therefore, out of the six varieties of sunflower evaluated in this assessment of salt tolerance, Hysun 33 was emerged as the most resilient to adverse impacts of salinity on growth and productivity of sunflower in salinity affected regions of Bangladesh.

Impact of organic and synthetic fertilizers on chili: A growth and nutrient utilization perspective

Md. Even Haque — 2025-03-25

Chili production is highly dependent on nutrient management, and the choice between organic and synthetic fertilizers significantly influences plant growth and soil health. An investigation was accomplished at field research laboratory of Patuakhali Science and Technology University, Bangladesh, between January and April 2022 to assess the impact of compost-based fertilizers and chemical fertilizers on chili growth, yield, and nutrient absorption. The study followed a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with three replications and six treatments: T₁ (100% Poultry Manure), T₂ (100% Cow dung), T₃ (100% NPKS - Recommended dose), T₄ (50% Poultry Manure + 50% NPKS), T₅ (50% Cow dung + 50% NPKS), and T₆ (Control). Growth and yield parameters, along with plant and soil nutrient analysis, were statistically analyzed and the means were compared via DMRT at a 5% significance level. The collective application of poultry manure and chemical fertilizers (T₄) significantly improved plant height, branch count, fruit diameter, fruit length, total fruit weight, individual fruit weight, and overall yield (31.77 t ha^-¹). This treatment also enhanced nutrient content (N: 1.24%, P: 0.047%, K: 0.147%, S: 0.051%) and uptake (N: 39.55 kg ha^-¹, P: 1.49 kg ha^-¹, K: 4.66 kg ha^-¹, S: 1.62 kg ha^-¹). Additionally, the combined treatments slightly improved soil organic matter, soil pH, and nutrient levels (N, P, K, S). NPKS findings highlight that integrating compost-based and chemical fertilizers, particularly poultry manure with NPKS, is a promising approach to maximizing chili productivity while sustaining soil fertility. The study bridges the existing research gap by providing empirical evidence on the optimal fertilization approach, offering valuable insights for sustainable chili cultivation in Bangladesh and similar agroecological regions.

FARMER’S PERCEPTION AND ADAPTATION STRATEGIES TO CLIMATE CHANGE ON POTATO FARMING IN NARAYAN MUNICIPALITY OF DAILEKH DISTRICT, NEPAL

Prabina Budhathoki

Introduction: Climate change is a global environmental threat to all economic sectors, particularly the agricultural sector. Farmers’ perception of climate change is a crucial element in the adaptation process. This study is aimed at analyzing farmers’ perceptions and adaptations to climate change on potato farming in Dailekh District. It was based on an analysis of data collected from 97 randomly selected farmers with focus group discussions, direct observation, and a pretested questionnaire survey.

Methods: The study employed descriptive methods to assess farmers’ perceptions of climate change and types of adaptation measures exercised to cope with climate change. Data analysis was done by using descriptive statistics, time series regression, Logit, and a seemingly unrelated regression model (SUR).

Results: Results suggested that most of the farmers of the study area perceived climatic change and its negative impact on potato farming and overall agriculture. The results show that the significant variables determining the climate change perception were socio - economic variables (gender, education, farming experience, and family size involved in agriculture) and bio-physical variables (change in precipitation, increase in drought, change in insect pests and diseases, and lack of irrigation). And significantly influenced farmers’ perception of climate change in the study area. Overall, 58.76% of the farm households adapted their farming to climate change. Changing crop varieties, changing planting time, changing harvesting time, pest management, irrigation management, fertilizer management, and crop rotation were the main adaptation methods implemented by farm households in the study area. The results from logistic regression reveal that education influenced 87.4% of farmers’ choices of adaptation measures. We found evidence of a link between farmers’ perception of climate change and the implementation of some adaptation options.

Conclusions: By assessing the farmer’s level of awareness, perception of climate change and their adaptation strategies the dialogue between farmers and researchers is identified to develop new strategies to compensate for the expected negative impacts of lack of irrigation, drought and climate-induced insect pest and disease in potato farming. The study’s finding suggest the need for greater investment in education, extension training and access to credit for climate change adaptation and improving farmers’ well-being.

Production and Marketing Opportunities and Constraints of Litchi in Syangja District, Nepal

Dikshya Aryal

Litchi is a significant subtropical evergreen fruit crop cultivated in Nepal, valued for its high nutritional content and refreshing flavor. This research was conducted to study the production and marketing opportunities and constraints of Litchi in the Syangja district of Nepal. In total, 70 samples were selected by stratified random sampling and 10 traders were selected to study marketing aspects. Primary and Secondary Data were collected using a semi-structured questionnaire, household survey, Focus Group discussion (FGD), literature, journal articles, and other different websites. The collected data were analyzed by using statistical software like IBM SPSS and MS Excel. Litchi farming was characterized by subsistence production and conventional practices. The productivity of litchi in the study area was 3.72t/ha. Producer-wholesaler-retailer-consumer marketing channel provided the highest marketing margin (95 NRS/Kg) and low producer’s share (54.29%) while the reverse was the case for channel I. Producer-retailer-consumer was the most preferred (78%) channel. The study showed that farmers ranked low volume of production as their most severe problem, with an index value of 0.9, while lack of transportation facilities was the least severe, with an index value of 0.35. 38.6% of the farmers planted seedless varieties of litchi whereas only 17.1% of litchi growers used recommended spacing between litchi trees. Prevalence of diseases, insect pests, and fruit cracking stands first with an index value of 0.98 followed by lack of technical knowledge, and post-harvest loss, while lack of irrigation facilities with the lowest index value of 0.48.

Nitrogen and Potassium Interaction in different textural soils in screen house for increased potato yield in Nepal.

Reena Sharma

Abstract

Since Nitrogen and Potassium are the first two crucial nutrients for potato nutrition, a glass house experiment was conducted in October, 2022 to assess the effect of different rates of nitrogen and Potassium on different textured soils on potato yield in National Potato Research Program, Khumaltar. The observation of potato’s responses to potassium and nitrogen under different soil texture may help to identify optimum nitrogen and potassium levels in the available soil type. The 3 types of soil were silt loam, sandy loam, and loamy sand. The pot was 40x24x24cm in dimensions. The different nitrogen and potassium rates were based on fertilizer recommendation for potato i.e.,100:100:60 kg/ha NP₂O₅: K₂O.The phosphorus was kept constant in all treatments. The experiment consisted of 3 factors; Nitrogen rates, Potassium rates, and Soil texture and conducted in factorial RCB Design. The nitrogen was applied at the rates 50, 100, 150 and 200 kg/ha. One treatment was made with no any nitrogen added i.e., without any nitrogen fertilizer. The potassium was applied in 4 rates as 30, 60, 90, 120 kg/ha. The total treatments were 49 and replicated thrice. The Variety was Janakdev which was a late maturing variety and also late blight resistant. In sandy loam type soil, the highest tuber weight/plant (547 gram/plant) was observed in Nitrogen 200 kg/ha and Potassium 90 kg/ha. In loamy sand type soil, the highest tuber weight per plant was obtained from (501 gram/plant) the treatment Nitrogen 200 kg/ha and Potassium 120 kg/ha. In silty loam type soil type, the highest tuber weight/plant is 483.3 gm/plant provided by Nitrogen 200 kg/ha and Potassium 120 kg/ha. In soil texture-Nitrogen-Potassium interaction, the highest tuber weight /plant (504.7 gram) was given by loamy sand with 100kg/ha nitrogen and 90kg/ha potassium. It can be concluded that we can increase nitrogen up to 200 kg/ha, also the yield can be optimized by potassium in higher rate up to 90-120 kg/ha for increased potato yield in any textured soils. Also, it seems sandy loam type soil is best for potato high yield production.

Production and Marketing Opportunities and Constraints of Litchi in Syangja District, Nepal

Dikshya Aryal

Litchi is a significant subtropical evergreen fruit crop cultivated in Nepal, valued for its high nutritional content and refreshing flavor. This research was conducted to study the production and marketing opportunities and constraints of Litchi in the Syangja district of Nepal. In total, 70 samples were selected by stratified random sampling and 10 traders were selected to study marketing aspects. Primary and Secondary Data were collected using a semi-structured questionnaire, household survey, Focus Group discussion (FGD), literature, journal articles, and other different websites. The collected data were analyzed by using statistical software like IBM SPSS and MS Excel. Litchi farming was characterized by subsistence production and conventional practices. The productivity of litchi in the study area was 3.72t/ha. Producer-wholesaler-retailer-consumer marketing channel provided the highest marketing margin (95 NRS/Kg) and low producer’s share (54.29%) while the reverse was the case for channel I. Producer-retailer-consumer was the most preferred (78%) channel. The study showed that farmers ranked low volume of production as their most severe problem, with an index value of 0.9, while lack of transportation facilities was the least severe, with an index value of 0.35. 38.6% of the farmers planted seedless varieties of litchi whereas only 17.1% of litchi growers used recommended spacing between litchi trees. Prevalence of diseases, insect pests, and fruit cracking stands first with an index value of 0.98 followed by lack of technical knowledge, and post-harvest loss, while lack of irrigation facilities with the lowest index value of 0.48.

Integrating microbial consortia into biofertilizers for sustainable agriculture: Enhancing plant productivity and soil health

Nandish Gurubasajar — 2025-03-25

Sustainable agriculture focuses on maintaining the soil health, minimizing environmental impact, and promoting plant productivity. Biofertilizers, using beneficial microbes, have become a powerful tool in biofertilizer formulations, enhancing plant productivity and soil health. Microbial consortia, composed of bacteria, fungi, and algae, play a crucial role in biofertilizer formulations by improving soil health and structure, converting atmospheric nitrogen into plant-accessible forms, breaking down insoluble phosphorus, mobilizing micronutrients, and promoting plant growth through growth-regulating hormones and bio control. Benefits of microbial consortia include enhanced plant productivity, reduced environmental impact, soil health restoration and resilience to environmental stress. However, their effectiveness can be affected by factors like environmental conditions, storage and microbial species compatibility. Careful formulation and application of microbial consortia are essential for their success. Regulatory approval is crucial for large-scale implementation and understanding the interactions between different microbes is necessary to design effective consortia that maximize benefits and minimize negative outcomes. This review emphasizes the crucial role of beneficial soil microorganisms in managing the rhizosphere, promoting plant growth and yield through a cost-effective, non-toxic, and eco-friendly approach.

Effect of water spraying time on nutritional quality of mung bean sprouts

Shekh Tanjina Islam Dola — 2025-03-25

The study evaluates the effect of spraying time on growth and nutritional quality of sprouts from two mung bean varieties. The experiment was conducted using a Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with four replications. This study used two factors experiment (variety and spraying time) comprised three treatments for the two mung bean varieties, BARI Muge Bean 2 and BARI Muge Bean 5. The water spraying times were categorized T₁(15 seconds), T₂(18 seconds) and T₃(20 seconds). Data were collected in the Plant Biotechnology Lab and Post Harvest Lab, PSTU. Significant variations were observed in the result; the highest sprout shoot length (6.05 cm) and root length (1.10 cm) were recorded in T₃. Additionally, the highest fresh sprout weight was with T₃measuring (25.90 g). Regarding chemical parameters, the highest values were noted as follows: pH in T₃(6.49), Total Soluble Solids (TSS) in T₁ (7.22%,), vitamin C in T₃(13.20 g), anthocyanin in T₃(77.50 mg), antioxidants content in T₃ (126.40 mg), phenol content in T₃(146.72 mg), carbohydrate in T₃ (6.08 g), total sugar in T₁(4.22 g) and reducing sugar in T₁(2.17 g). In conclusion, the combination of longer spraying time and the BARI Mung Bean 5 variety produced higher quality sprouts and enhanced biochemical content, with the exception of pH, TSS, and sugar levels. Future research should explore additional factors affecting sprout quality.

Cluster-based large -scale demonstration of improved wheat technologies in Silte and Gurage Zones, Central Region, Ethiopia

Getachw Dessalegn Shiferaw

Cluster-based large-scale demonstration and popularization of improved wheat varieties with agronomic practices was conducted in Silte and Gurage zones. Four representative districts were selected from the two zones on the basis of EFSRP beneficiary districts. Accordingly, two districts (Misrak Azernet and Worabe town administration) from the Silte zone and two districts (Sodo and Endegagn) from the Gurage zone were selected due to their potential for bread wheat production and high demand for the crop. Training for the participant farmers was given, and different stakeholders participated at each wheat cluster site. The field day was organized on October 12, 2023, at Misrak Azernet district, Mehal Adazer Kebele, to involve key stakeholders and enhance linkages among relevant actors. The wheat variety applied in the Misrak Azernet district, Worabe town, and Debub Sodo district was kekeba, and in the Endegagn district wane variety was used, which are currently productive and high yielding at the recommended agroecology. The descriptive statistics revealed that the average yields of wheat were 47.2, 32.31, 33.13, and 31.5 quintal ha-, and their standard deviations were 8.84, 8.56, 6.33, and 5.8 in Misrak azernet, Worabe town administration, Endegagn, and Debub Sodo districts, respectively. The yields obtained at each cluster site were greater than the national average yield and district productivity. Thus, it is recommended that it is better to disseminate and address wide areas of the community through extension systems with their full packages, including agronomic practices. Farmers should use wheat in clustered form for better management to increase their wheat production and generate more income for their livelihood.

A review on the impact of wildfires on ecosystems, water quality, and health risks to humans

O.P. Bansal — 2025-03-25

Due to global warming, climatic changes, and enhanced anthropogenic activities (due to population growth) over the past 20 years, the number and intensity of wildfires have increased manifold around the world. Although forest fire is integral to shaping the forest’s flora and fauna and maintaining the environment’s health, frequent fires and their severity are causing several adverse impacts on the environment, aquatic organisms, wild animals, and humans. Wildfire releases the volatile organic pollutants in the environment (in the form of smoke), inducing changes in soil physicochemical properties and affecting the hydrological cycle. The pH values of soil and surface water are altered due to ash, which adversely impacts the aquatic organisms and soil microbes. The soil’s water retention capacity significantly reduced (35-45%). The smoke generated during wildfires adversely affects the health of wild animals and humans. Trends that are predicted to continue are not only a natural disturber of forests and ecosystems but also significantly affect human and wild animals’ health adversely. Wildfires not only damage forests and have a negative impact on human and animal health but also threaten water security, increase the probability of flooding, and increase economic losses. In-depth research and understanding on this topic are urgently needed for the better management of forest ecosystems. In this review research information publish after 2019 was considered and we have discussed the recent update in wildfire and forest fire, their causes, impacts on the soil quality, water resources, biodiversity and human health, and this article will serve as the basis for future wildfire research.

Effect of different packaging materials and calcium chloride on post-harvest longevity of banana

Arjun Acharya — 2025-03-25

Nepal produces large amount of bananas annually but suffers significant losses owing to inappropriate postharvest management. The objective of the study was to determine the influence of polythene and fiber bag packaging, and calcium chloride treatment on bananas quality and shelf life. The two-factor experiment involved treatments that included bananas wrapped in a polythene and fiber bag of size 60 cm × 60 cm, and an open space, combined with calcium chloride concentrations of 1%, 3%, and 5%, along with untreated fruits kept in open space without using any bag as a control. Each treatment was replicated three times in a Completely Randomized Design (CRD). The research was conducted for 16 (sixteen) days and the observation taken were physiological weight loss, ripening percent, titratable acidity (TA), and total soluble solid (TSS). Polythene bag with 5% CaCl₂ reduced 89.6% weight loss than that of open space with 0% CaCl₂. Similarly, polythene bag with 5% CaCl₂ reduced ripening percentage by 10.72% compared to open space with 0 % CaCl₂. Polythene bag also reduced ripening percentage by 4.14% compared to fiber bag at 16^thDay of study. On the 16^th Day, ripening percentage was reduced by 5% by 5% CaCl₂ concentration compared to 0% CaCl₂.A longer time to reach ripening stage was observed in polythene than those of fiber bags and open space. Thus, the polythene bag with 5% CaCl₂ fruits had the highest TSS content (23.2 ⁰Brix).

In vitro comparative toxicity of chemical insecticides and botanicals against ladybird beetle (Micraspis discolor F.) in Nepal

Puja Khadka — 2025-03-25

Micraspis discolor F. is the most abundant ladybird beetle in rice crop ecosystems and an effective natural predator of several economically significant agricultural pests. However, the widespread use of non-selective insecticides has disrupted natural enemy populations, highlighting the need for safer alternatives to integrate into pest management strategies.
Limited research exists on the toxicity of commercial and bio-rational insecticides on beneficial insects. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the toxicity of various insecticides and botanicals in a laboratory setting to determine which pesticide is safest for M. discolor and to assess its mortality. The experiment followed a completely randomized design with five treatments: Azadirachtin 0.03% EC, garlic extract, Dimethoate 30% EC, Chlorpyrifos 50% EC + Cypermethrin 5% EC, and a control, each replicated five times. Mortality rates were recorded at 24, 48, and 72 hours’ post-exposure. The results showed that M. discolor was significantly affected by Chlorpyrifos 50% EC + Cypermethrin 5% EC, which caused the highest mortality (86%) after 72 hours, followed by Dimethoate (74%). Among the tested substances, garlic extract was the safest, with a mortality rate of 54%, although still higher than the control, which exhibited no mortality. These findings highlight the potential of botanical extracts as safer alternatives for pest management, aiding in the conservation of beneficial insect populations. Furthermore, in order to promote sustainable agriculture, future research should concentrate on developing safer substitutes that reduce damage to pollinators, parasitoids, and natural predators while preserving efficient pest control.

Genetic variability, character association and path analysis of yield and yield attributes of rice genotypes at Lalitpur, Nepal

Shovit Khanal — 2025-03-25

Rice is a staple for over half the world’s population. Location-specific varietal trials help identify suitable genotypes with desirable traits. A study in Lalitpur, Nepal, evaluated 12 rice genotypes in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications to assess genotypic variability, character association, and path analysis for yield-related traits. Observations from five randomly selected plants per plot were analyzed statistically. Analysis of variance revealed significant differences among genotypes for most traits, indicating ample genetic variability. Grain yield (20.26) showed the highest genotypic coefficient of variation (GCV), while effective tillers (24.26%) had the highest phenotypic coefficient of variation (PCV), followed by grain yield, straw yield, and tiller number. High heritability and high genetic advance as percent of mean were noted for days to flowering (35.15), total grain per panicle (34.84), tiller number (33.39), and panicle weight (31.55), suggesting additive gene control and selection potential. Grain yield was positively correlated with panicle length (r = 0.47**), total grain per panicle (r = 0.40*), panicle weight (r = 0.43**), tiller number (r = 0.34*), and straw yield (r = 0.62*). Path analysis showed total grain per panicle (2.55) had the highest positive direct effect on yield, alongside days to flowering, plant height, effective tillers, unfilled grains per panicle, and straw yield. Khumal-4, Khumal-8, and Taichung-176 emerged as superior genotypes. Hence, it is strongly advised that these traits be chosen in rice breeding programs to further enhance production. Khumal-4, Khumal-8, and Taichung-176 were the most promising genotypes.

Impact of reduced rate of pre-emergence herbicide with aqueous extract of mustard crop residues on different weed management indices and yield of transplanted aman rice

Naymur Rahman Arif — 2025-03-25

Effective weed management with herbicides and crop extracts boosts rice yield and growth. In this respect, a field experiment was conducted from July to December 2023 at the Agronomy Field Laboratory (AFL), Bangladesh Agricultural University (BAU), Mymensingh, to evaluate the effect of mustard crop residue extract combined with reduced herbicide doses on the yield and attributes of T. aman rice. The study involved three rice varieties BRRIdhan49, BRRI dhan87, and Binadhan-7 and seven treatments: no weeding (control), recommended dose of herbicide at pre-emergence (RDHP), mustard crop extract (MCE), 80% RDHP + MCE, 70% RDHP + MCE, 60% RDHP + MCE, and weed-free conditions. Results showed the highest weed growth in control treatment and the lowest in the weed-free treatment, with 80% RDHP + MCE showing the second-lowest weed growth. The weed-free treatment achieved the highest weed control index (WCI), weed control efficiency (WCE), and herbicide efficiency index (HEI), while minimizing weed index (WI), weed population index (WPI), weed mass index (WMI), and the Ammonia Index (AMI), followed by 80% RDHP + MCE. BRRI dhan87 produced the highest grain yield (5.36 t ha^-¹), while BRRI dhan49 had the lowest (4.54 t ha^-¹). The highest yield was recorded in the weed-free treatment (5.80 t ha^-¹), followed by 80% RDHP + MCE (5.35 t ha^-¹), and the control produced the lowest yield (2.63 t ha^-¹). The study concludes that using 80% RDHP combined with MCE is an effective weed control strategy that enhances T. aman rice yield by reducing herbicide dependency.

Prospects and constraints of coffee production, processing and marketing in Syangja, Nepal

Bandana Shah — 2025-03-25

Coffee is a major plantation cash crop in the mid-hills of Nepal. Syangja is one of the leading districts for coffee production and export in Nepal. This research was aimed at assessing the production potential, processing constraints, and marketing challenges of coffee in the Syangja district. The study was conducted in three rural municipalities of Syangja, namely Arjunchaupari rural municipality, Biruwa rural municipality, and Putalibazar municipality. A total of 120 samples were selected using a mixed sampling technique, combining purposive and random sampling methods. Face-to-face (FtF) interviews were conducted using a pretested semi-structured questionnaire. Data were analysed using the Relative Importance Index (RII) and forced ranking methods. The major production constraint was infestation by white stem borer (RII = 0.846), while improper cherry picking (RII = 0.9) was the most significant processing challenge. In terms of marketing, low profit margins (0.74) and price fluctuations (0.635) were identified as key constraints. Despite challenges, Syangja has strong coffee-growing potential due to its favourable climate and high economic returns. The study highlights that coffee cultivation has strong potential to enhance rural incomes in Syangja, but existing challenges in production, processing, and marketing need to be addressed. Poor government support and inadequate market linkages have resulted in dissatisfaction among farmers. Therefore, integrated interventions, including improved pest management, enhanced processing techniques, and cooperative-based marketing models, should be introduced by the Nepal government to improve the sustainability and profitability of the coffee sector in Syangja.

Neglected and underutilized fruits in Nepal: Importance, Challenges and Conservation approaches

Barsha Mahato — 2025-03-25

This paper investigates the neglected and underutilized fruits (N&U fruits) of Nepal, aimed to explore the potential of N&U fruits in Nepal, examining their importance, challenges, and conservation strategies. The study employs a comprehensive review of N&U fruit species in Nepal, focusing on their ecological distribution, socio-economic significance, and barriers to conservation and utilization. Key findings indicate that certain indigenous fruits, grown at altitudes ranging from 60 m to 4700 m, have the potential to contribute up to 5-10% of local agricultural income and can significantly boost rural economies. These fruits also provide ecological benefits, such as soil erosion prevention and increased biodiversity, with deep root systems that stabilize soils, particularly in the hilly regions. Additionally, N&U fruits are highly nutritious, providing essential carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and bioactive compounds that aid in addressing malnutrition and preventing health issues such as cardiovascular diseases. Despite these advantages, challenges such as insufficient research, shifting preferences toward exotic varieties, and climate change hinder their cultivation and commercialization. Conservation strategies like on-farm, in-situ, and ex-situ methods have been implemented, with approximately 30% of local crop diversity being conserved through on-farm strategies. Strengthening research and improving market access could increase the utilization of these fruits by up to 50%, contributing to both economic development and environmental sustainability. This study highlights the urgent need for interdisciplinary research and the development of comprehensive conservation frameworks to ensure the sustainability of these valuable genetic resources for future generations.

Impact of agricultural credit on profitability and efficiency of onion cultivation in a selected area of Bangladesh

Mohammad Ataur Rahman — 2025-03-25

Onion is one of the most important commercial spice crops in Bangladesh, grown and consumed almost all over the country. The purpose of this study was to look at the socioeconomic factors, loan profile, profitability and efficiency, as well as the effect of credit on onion production in Bangladesh's Pabna district. Stochastic production frontier method and profitability analysis was used in this study. Primary data were collected through a field survey of 120 onion farmers using a semi-structured interview schedule. The major findings of this study revealed that the majority of the sample farmers were between the ages of 30 and 64; the average family size and annual household income were 5.36 persons and Tk. 264,450 (US$ 2409.57). About 85 percent of the loan money was used for onion cultivation in the study area. Onion production was profitable in the study area. Per hectare, total cost, total return, gross margin, net return, and benefit-cost ratio (BCR) were Tk. 384090.5 (US$ 3499.69), 973657 (US$ 8871.59), 671957.5 (US$ 6122.62), 589566.5 (US$ 5371.90), and 2.53, respectively, for the credit group and Tk. 378412 (US$ 3447.95), 895920 (US$ 8163.28), 599761 (US$ 5464.79), 517508 (US$ 4715.33), and 2.37, respectively, for the non-credit group. The mean farmer's technical efficiency was 94 percent. The impact of credit on onion cultivation was positive. The coefficient value was 0.081. Thus, the study area has tremendous potential for onion production; relevant authorities need to ensure the smooth, timely, and hassle-free flow of sufficient credit to the onion farmers.

Evaluating Efficacy of Newly Introduced Herbicides Against Coffee Weeds at Sidama, Ethiopia

Malkamu Fufa

Weed is the major limiting factor of coffee production in Ethiopia. Weeds in coffee cause a 65% yield reduction in the country. Nowadays, the expense of weed management has been a principal issue in Ethiopia's economic analysis of coffee production. Herbicide is the best weed management option in coffee production. Thus, the newly introduced herbicide verification trial was conducted on-site at the Hawassa Agricultural Research Center and Awada Coffee Research sub-center site in 2024, during the cropping season, to evaluate the efficacy of the newly introduced herbicide. The experiment consists of five (5) treatments of Wanda 48%SL (Glyphosate 48% g/l SL) test herbicide and XTrim 48%Sl, True killer, and Gly care 480%g/l SL, as a standard check and weedy control as a negative control. The herbicides effectively reduced weed density and improved weed control efficiency compared to weedy control. The tested herbicide Wanda 48%SL (Glyphosate 48 g/l SL) was fully controlled in the experimental plot, similar to a standard herbicide with one-time application for one season. This result suggested that one-time application at vigorous weed growth is mandatory to achieve full control throughout the season equivalent to standard control herbicides. Therefore, Wanda 48%SL (Glyphosate 48g/l SL) at 3 L/ha within 250L/ha water with one-time application per season is recommended to control weeds in coffee as an alternative management option. According to this study, all the evaluated herbicides can control coffee weeds, without different control duration. All standard checks True killer, Glycare 480% g/l SL, XTrim 48% SL, and the tested herbicide Wanda 48%SL (Glyphosate 48g/l SL) controlled weed species within 7 to 21 days.

Optimizing soil quality and mustard (Brassica juncea) yield through spacing and sesbania incorporation

Israt Jahan Irin — 2025-03-25

Soil fertility is an important variable in achieving higher production scales. Sesbania is frequently utilized as an alternate material for soil fertility improvement since it improves the chemical characteristics of soil and supplies plant nourishment after decomposition. An experiment was conducted at Khulna Agricultural University to investigate the way plant spacing and sesbania incorporation affect mustard yield, yield characteristics, and soil fertility. The study laid out randomized complete block design included six treatments, which consisted of three different spacing’s, along with the incorporation of sesbania green manuring crops as a soil fertility improver and using BARI-14 sarisha as the test crop. The findings of the experiment showed that the majority of the yield and yield components notably varied with variation of spacing and sesbania application. Results showed that sesbania incorporated soil with optimum (30 × 20 cm) plant spacing positively impacted highest mustard yield (1.66 tha^-1), 5% more oil content and 2.4% more siliqua plant^-1 compared to no green manuring plot. On the other hand, plants set up widely (30 × 30 cm) brought in more siliquae plant^-1, seeds siliqua^-1 and 1,000-seed weight than closer spacing. Furthermore, inclusion of sesbania resulted in improvement of organic matter (7%), available nitrogen (30%), phosphorus (30%) and potassium (50%) in soil compared to non-incorporated soil. Therefore, an optimal spacing of 30 × 20, along with the integration of sesbania (5t/ha), is required to achieve enhanced mustard yield and oil content, as well as improved soil fertility.

Determinants and Possible Challenges to the Adoption of Local Kalanamak Rice in the Western Terai Region of Nepal

Local rice landraces, a crucial component for maintaining agricultural biodiversity, food and nutrition security, and a reservoir of genetic materials for breeding, are facing a significant decline in cultivation by farmers. This decline, attributed to various socio-economic, biotic, and abiotic factors and productivity-related challenges, underscores the urgent need for intervention.This research, conducted in the Kapilvastu district of Nepal, surveyed 169 farmers (70 adoptSSing local Kalanamak and 99 adopting improved varieties) using purposive sampling in 2023. The findings of this study have the potential to impact the conservation and promotion of local Kalanamak rice significantly.Among six socioeconomic and production parameters studied, the size of the household head, years of schooling, and total rice productivity significantly affected the adoption of rice varieties. Size of household (β=1.053, P =<0.05, and OR=2.866) and years of schooling of household head (β=0.404, P=<0.05, OR =1.498) showed a significant positive effect on rice adoption. The odds ratio (OR) revealed that the likelihood of adopting kalanamak rice increases with the increase in the size of the household and the number of years of schooling of the household head. On the contrary, total productivity (β= -10.216, P< 0.01, OR = 0.001) significantly affected the adaptation of rice varieties. The extremely low value of OR revealed that the likelihood of adoption of kalanamak rice decreases due to low productivity. Problem analysis showed that disease and pest infestation, irrigation, and high cost of seed, fertilizer, and farm machinery were highly persistent and impactful problems faced by kalanamak rice-adopting farmers.These findings underscore the urgent need for policy interventions that prioritize larger households and provide training facilities for low-educated farmers. Developing highly productive and disease-resistant Kalanamak cultivars and price subsidization in fertilizer, seed, and farm machinery could significantly promote the sustainable conservation of Kalanamak rice.

Effect of different concentrations of Ethephon on ripening and postharvest quality of banana (cv. Malbhog) in Chitwan district, Nepal

Barsha Mahato — 2025-03-25

The present investigation on the effect of different concentrations of Ethephon on ripening and postharvest quality of banana (cv. Malbhog) in Chitwan district, Nepal, was conducted to find out the best concentration of Ethephon on ripening and quality parameters after harvest under ambient room temperature (28±5°C) and 64% RH. The experiment was laid out in Completely Randomized Design (CRD), which comprised five treatments: Control, Ethephon @200 ppm, Ethephon @400 ppm, Ethephon @600 ppm, and Ethephon @800 ppm replicated four times. Different postharvest parameters were recorded on alternate days for 9 days. The use of Ethephon @600 ppm and Ethephon @800 ppm was found more effective regarding banana ripening. On the 9th day after storage, firmness decreased significantly with ripening, with the lower firmness recorded in bananas treated with Ethephon @800 ppm (1.23 kg/cm²) and Ethephon @600 ppm (1.35 kg/cm²). Similarly, the highest pulp-to-peel ratio (3.71) was recorded with Ethephon @800 ppm. The maximum TSS (23.75 ˚Brix) was recorded in bananas treated with Ethephon @800 ppm, which was at par with the effect of other concentrations of Ethephon. TA also peaked in bananas treated with Ethephon @800 ppm (0.67%). Moreover, Ethephon significantly accelerated ripening, with bananas treated with Ethephon @800 ppm requiring only 5.50 days and Ethephon @600 ppm requiring 6.00 days. Thus, in this study, the respondent gave higher scores for bananas treated with Ethephon @600 ppm and @800 ppm, with better sweetness and flavour compared to the control.

Production and marketing system of mustard (Brassica juncea) in some selected areas of Bangladesh

Mohammad Rashidul Haque — 2025-03-25

The paper provides an estimate of the marketing efficiency of BINA Sarisha-11, the mustard variety of Brassica juncea, developed by BINA and grown in Rangpur, Jamalpur, and Magura. It looks at various aspects of marketing: the cost of cultivation and returns, the identification of participants in the marketing chain, marketing costs, margins, and efficiencies at different levels. A total of 180 respondents were selected through stratified random sampling comprising 90 farmers and 90 traders. The statistical tools used included profitability and marketing efficiency models. The results showed that the cultivation of BINA Sarisha-11 was profitable as an average net return of BDT 51,291 (423.64 USD) per hectare was estimated with a benefit-cost ratio of 1.94. Marketing efficiency varied among the chains; the Farmer to Retailer to final Consumer chain was the most efficient, least costly, and had the highest producer share of 64.61%. On the contrary, longer chains were costlier and offered reduced producer shares. Farmers complained of seed unavailability, high prices of fertilizers, and lack of training, while traders complained of unstable prices and high costs of transportation as major challenges. The study identifies that there is a need for policy intervention to smoothen the marketing chains, improve access to inputs, and reduce problems related to market infrastructure. This will ensure the value chain of BINA Sarisha-11 is profitable and efficient, adding to the overall sustainability in mustard cultivation within Bangladesh.

Status of large cardamom in Nepal: Trend of production, marketing, challenges and prospects

Krishna Hari Tiwari — 2025-03-25

Large cardamom (Amomum subulatum) grown mainly in the hilly regions of Nepal, is a valuable export commodity that fetch higher prices compared to other agricultural products. Its cultivation which was once restricted to country's eastern regions has now spread to 53 districts of Nepal. There is an increasing trend in both the acreage and production of large cardamom over the past 12 years in Nepal with peak production and productivity recorded in the year 2019 and 2020 which were 9545 Mt. and 0.58 t/ha, respectively. However, various challenges such as diseases and insects has reduced the potential of its production. Thus, the study focuses on identifying the requirements for improving large cardamom production, including disease management, suitable cultivars, and orchard management techniques. The problems associated with the marketing system and challenges related to price instability of large cardamom are also discussed, along with potential solutions. Also, the study proposes future goals to enhance productivity and evaluates the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) of the large cardamom production and marketing in Nepal.

Synergy of biochar and organic fertilizer improves soybean (Glycine max L.) growth by alleviation nutrient stress in strongly acidic Taiwanese soil

Marianus Evarist Ngui — 2025-03-25

The potential of biochar and organic fertilizer to enhance soil fertility, promote crop growth, and increase yield is driving their growing popularity in modern agricultural practices. This research investigated the effects of applying a combination of biochar and organic fertilizer on soil physico-chemical properties and the growth attributes of soybean (Glycine max L.) in the strong acidic soil of Taiwan. The study was conducted in a greenhouse using a pot experiment arranged in a randomized complete block design with two factorial treatments, replicated three times. Fifteen days after soil amendment, treatment B₃₅F₁₄₀ had a significant increase in soil pH of 5.54 compared to the control group. Similar treatment resulted in higher P available in soil of 19.11 mg kg^-1. In addition, 45 days after soil amendment, organic matter, available potassium, calcium, magnesium, copper, and zinc increased by 19.59%, 236.36%, 38.39%, 112.76%, 7.01%, and 44.59% in the application of treatments B₇₀F₁₄₀, B₃₅F₁₄₀, B₃₅F₁₀₅, B₇₀F₁₄₀, and B₃₅F₇₀, respectively, compared to control. The tallest soybean plants were seen on the application of treatment B₇₀F₁₄₀with a maximum height of 112.75 cm, while treatment B₃₅F₁₄₀ produced many soybean plant leaves — 51 leaves per plant. Moreover, root hairs extensively grew on soybean plants grown on the amended soils than those of the control treatment. Conclusively, our findings have statistically demonstrated that the combination of biochar and organic fertilizer can improve soil quality and soybean growth characteristics under conditions of strongly acidic soil, as evidenced by a short-term pot and greenhouse study.

Growth and yield response of groundnut cultivars to selected rates of phosphorous and soil amendments in the Southern Guinea Savanna of The Gambia

S.A.F. Jallow — 2025-03-25

A field experiment was conducted at The Gambia College Research Farm in the wet season from June to November, 2022. The aim was to determine the growth and yield response of groundnut cultivars to selected rates of phosphorous and soil amendments in The Gambia. A split-plot design was used with two groundnut cultivars assigned to the the main plots and sixteen rates of phosphorous fertilizer and organic soil amendments allocated to the subplots. The treatments were replicated three times. The treatments were applied and incorporated into the soil two weeks before planting. Sowing was done at a depth of 5 cm and the plants were spaced at 50cm between rows and 12cm between stands within the row with one seed per stand. The application of phosphorus (P) at 30 kgha^-1 + Farm Yard Manure (FYM) at 5,000 kgha^-1 recorded the highest number of branches (18.67) and largest canopy (57.93cm), highest pod weight (1088.70 kg ha^-1) and kernel yield (1025.50 kg ha^-1), followed by P at 30 kgha^-1 + Biochar at 2500 kgha^-1 and P at 60 kgha^-1. The study concluded that application of P at 30 kgha^-1 + FYM at 5,000 kgha^-1 significantly increased the production of pod and kernel yields than rest of the treatments tested on groundnut. Therefore, this treatment is recommended for adoption by small-scale farmers to increase groundnut production and P availability in Gambian soils.

A review on co-composting of biosolids and its use in crops cultivation for agriculture sustainability

Sheetal Rani — 2024-12-25

Generation and disposal of biosolids (solid and semisolid materials left after the wastewater treatment) has becoming a challenge globally. A large number of objectionable components like heavy metals, pesticides, detergents and pathogens restricts the direct application of biosolids in the cultivation of agricultural crops as it contaminates the soil as well as the cultivated crops and causes health issues. Co-composting of biosolids can be a viable option to utilize the biosolids in a definite proportion along with different types of biodegradable materials (co-substrate) such as, kitchen waste, agricultural residues, forestry waste and waste from the animal husbandry etc. Co-composting improves the nutrients status of the composted biosolids and reduce the risk of accumulation of toxic heavy metals and pathogens in the soil and cultivated crops. The application of biosolids compost in to the soils significantly improve the physical structure, nutrients composition and microbial profile of the soils and subsequently enhance the crops productivity. It also reduces the risk of contamination of the soils and cultivated agricultural crops in comparison to the direct use of biosolids in soil amendment. In this paper we discussed the use of biosolids in agriculture, co-composting of biosolids with different co-substrates and their application in the cultivation of different agricultural crops for sustainable agriculture production.

Effect of technological interventions on yield gap analysis and profitability of winter onion (Allium cepa L.) varieties

M. A. Khan — 2024-12-25

The present study was conducted in growing onion through front line demonstrations (FLDs) by Spices Research Sub-Centre, Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute, Faridpur, Bangladesh during winter season of 2023-2024. The experiment was set up at five farmers’ fields under five villages such as Ramchandrapur, Bajarkandi, Bisnudia, Chilarkandi and Narasinghdia of Faridpur district. Under the present investigation, two high yielding recent varieties (BARI Piaz-4 and BARI Piaz-6) with improved management practices was intervened to exhibit its performance, to find out yield gaps and to assess profitability of onion. A local variety with farmers’ traditional practices was grown (as check) adjacent to the demonstration plot. The study revealed a large average yield gap (5.33 t/ha). The demonstration variety produced higher average yield (20.01 t/ha) as compared to the local variety (16.67 t/ha). The average demonstration yield was 19.97% higher than that of local variety. The technology gap and extension gap had higher in BARI Piaz-4 (2.22 & 3.66 t/ha) as compared to those of BARI Piaz-6 (1.76 & 3.01 t/ha), respectively. The technology index of BARI Piaz-4 and BARI Piaz-6 were 9.65 and 8.38%, respectively. Lower technology index proves the strength of new technology with recommended package of practices. Adoption index value of BARI Piaz-6 was higher (77.78%) than that of BARI Piaz-4 (66.66%). The demonstration varieties performed also better over control based on the quality parameters. Demonstration variety gave higher average gross return (Tk. 927770 ≅ $7731), net return (Tk. 690110 ≅ $5751) and benefit-cost ratio (3.90) over local variety (Tk. 707000 ≅ $5892, Tk. 463450 ≅ $3862 & 2.90), respectively. Considering yield, quality and profitability; farmers expressed their satisfaction to the performance of BARI Piaz-4 and BARI Piaz-6 with improved management practices. But farmers preferred BARI Piaz-6 over BARI Piaz-4 based on quality and market price of onions.

Influence of sowing dates and weeding regimes on growth attributes and maize dry fodder yield

Swapan Kumar Paul — 2024-12-25

Effective agricultural practices are pivotal for ensuring optimal crop yields and sustainable farming. Two critical factors that significantly influence crop productivity are the date of planting and the weeding regime. An experiment was carried out to investigate how the timing of planting and the frequency of weeding impact the growth characteristics and fodder yield of maize. The study involved three planting dates viz. 15 November (D₁), 15 December (D₂) and 14 January (D₃) along with five different weeding regimes viz. no weeding (W₀), two hand weedings at 15 and 30 days after sowing (DAS) (W₁), pre-emergence herbicide (pendimethalin) + one hand weeding at 30 DAS (W₂), post-emergence herbicide (pyrazosulfuran-ethyl) + one hand weeding at 30 DAS (W₃), and pre-emergence herbicide (pendimethalin) + post-emergence (pyrazosulfuran-ethyl) herbicide (W₄). The growth characteristics and the amount of dry fodder produced were notably affected by the timing of planting, the method of weeding and how these factors interacted. At harvest, the tallest plant (138.48 cm) and total dry matter production plant^-1 (37.32 g) were recorded in the plants sown on 15 November with the application of pre-emergence herbicide (pendimethalin) + one hand weeding at 30 DAS. The maximum number of leaves plant^-1 (13.33) and leaf chlorophyll content (116.60) were obtained from15 November with the application of pre-emergence herbicide (pendimethalin) + post-emergence (pyrazosulfuran-ethyl) herbicide and 14 January with the application of pre-emergence herbicide (pendimethalin) + one hand weeding at 30 DAS. The highest dry fodder yield (4.14 t ha^-1) was achieved with maize planted on 15 November and treated with pre-emergence herbicide (pendimethalin) + one hand weeding at 30 days after sowing. Based on the study, it can be concluded that planting on November 15 using a pre-emergence + one hand weeding 30 days after sowing may result in the tallest plants, maximum total dry matter production and the maximum dry fodder yield of maize.

A study on family farm-enterprise of producers in rural communities of the Gambia

S. E. Sanyang — 2024-12-25

The agricultural systems of the Gambia entirely depend on rain-fed agriculture, and it propels economic growth. Agriculture's contribution to the Gambia's GDP is 22%. The Gambia's economy heavily depends on agriculture and provides 30–40% of the country's foreign exchange earnings. Family farm enterprise is a lucrative business, but limited research work has been done to determine its economic contributions in improving the livelihoods of producers. The problem statement of the research work is to identify knowledge gap, finance, and markets of family farm producers to enhance production capacity, yield and income. The objective identifies the contribution of family enterprise to the economy, and to address the challenges that affects profitability. The study applied a purposive sampling technique for qualitative and quantitative approaches. The methodology of data collection was focus group discussion, key informants’ interviews and review of secondary data from other research work. A total of (5) focus group discussions, (90) interviews and (10) key informants was conducted in 3 agricultural regions. The results showed female participates immensely in family farm production than male of 443 and 25 respectively. The result showed positive contribution in socio-economic development were North Bank Region scored D2, 709,225 while lowest income earned was Central River Region amounting to D279,700.00 respectively. In conclusion, family farm enterprises can boost local economy of rural communities enhancing livelihoods. Thus, recommend government to create easy access to finance, market and training on business management skills for the family members engaged in agriculture as a business entity.

Rehabilitation of agro biodiversity in Karnali river basin of Nepal

Janak Pant

Loss of biodiversity has been one of the major challenges of Karnali river basin. So, an experiment and discussion were conducted to determine various methods in rehabilitating agricultural biodiversity in Mugu and Jumla districts of Karnali basin from January 2021 to January 2024. Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) method was used to make comparison between indigenous versus modern method of seed conservation, climate smart versus modern method of farming, water resources in soil: cement tank versus cement tank, compost manuring versus chemical fertilizer, crop diversification versus single cropping, improved shed versus non-improved shed and use of traps versus chemical pesticides. Focus Group Discussion (FGD) was carried to determine information in local seed promotion (seed bank, seed treatment). Eco-farming (Ecosystem balancing, Perma-garden), socio-ecological management, agro-biodiversity promotions, and policy interventions. Indigenous or climate smart farming methods or seed conservation, application of internal resources such as composts, promotion of local seed through seed banks or seed treatment, socio-ecological biodiversity management including promotional intervention of agricultural biodiversity and strengthening government policies have found viable and effective method to rehabilitate agricultural biodiversity in Karnali river basin of Nepal.

Assessments and identification of major insect pests on sweet orange (Citrus sinensis) in the field at Darasalaam district, Somaliland

Jamaal Barre — 2025-03-25

A field survey was carried out in 2024 to assess major insect pests of sweet orange in Darasalaam district. Among three extensive sweet orange-growing villages namely Maluugta, Horri-Haadlay, and Kal-Qoray were selected. A total of 214 sweet orange orchards were assessed and the study applied a purposive sampling technique for both qualitative and quantitative approaches. In order to quantify qualitative phenomena related to the ranking of the common insect pests on sweet orange orchards, indexing was carried out. The obtained data was coded and subjected to SPSS version 20. The result showed, that a leaf miner, mealy bugs, brown scale insects, citrus black flies, fruit-sucking moths, and pysllids were identified as major insect pests on all range farms. These major insect pests were ranked by individual respondents of farmers with 6 as the highest rank and 1 as the lowest rank. Weightage was given for the ranked position as 1.6, 1.1, 0.79, 0.42, 0.20, and 0.06 for first, second, third, fourth, fifth, and six positions respectively. Likewise, according to major reasons for incidence, climate change received an index of 1.40, placing it in the first rank, followed by poor management practices, lack of knowledge, weak planting material and poor soil fertility status were indexed 0.41, 0.19, 0.08 and 0.02, respectively. This study provides benchmark information about major insect pests of sweet oranges in the field in order to develop an effective and safe insect control strategy for the orange farms in Darasalaam district.

Evaluation of intercropping legumes and green manuring on soil properties in maize field

Sonu Gautam — 2025-03-25

A field experiment was conducted at Lamjung campus, Sundarbazar from March to July of the year 2023 to find out the effect of different legumes and green manuring on the improvement of soil moisture. The experiment was set up in a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with five treatments which are maize, Maize + Cowpea, Maize + French bean, Maize + Soybean and Maize + Green manuring and 4 replications. It was observed that the use of green manuring was better than the control treatment in increasing moisture content by more than 2.34 times (p<0.05). The control treated plots had higher bulk density which also meant that there was less moisture in the soil. The use of green manuring was seen to decrease the soil temperature by about 1.17 times as compared to the control. As compared to the control system, green manuring enhanced the organic carbon content by more than 2.21 times that of the control. Maize plant growth with the help of green manuring was excellent, ear length was about 20.72 cm and diameter was 3.22 cm and 2.25 % nitrogen content was found in the green manuring treatment and it is a requirement for cell division and elongation. These results indicate that green manuring notably improves maize productivity by substantially increasing soil moisture retention, maintaining soil temperature, and raising organic carbon content of soil. Therefore, green manuring is a sustainable and successful agricultural technique that improves soil qualities and crop yields, according to the study's findings.

Genetic diversity and morphological characterization of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) landraces in Nepal

Mukunda Bhattarai — 2025-03-25

This study examined the genetic diversity and phenotypic characteristics of 60 wheat landraces from 24 districts across Nepal. The study was conducted at the National Agriculture Genetic Resources Centre (NAGRC) in Khumaltar, where it employed a non-replicated augmented block design to assess eight qualitative and sixteen quantitative traits based on Bioversity International descriptors. The Shannon-Weaver diversity index (H') for wheat landraces varies from 0.457 to 0.979 across qualitative traits. Tillering capacity shows the highest diversity at 0.979, and glume hairiness has the lowest diversity at 0.457. The coefficient of variation (CV) for the quantitative traits of wheat landraces varied widely; percentages ranged from 7.58% for days of heading, suggesting relatively low variability, to 36.56% for spike exertion, indicating high variability among the samples. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) with an eigenvalue greater than 1 revealed that five principal components accounted for 70.95% of the variability, with traits like plant height and spike exertion playing pivotal roles in genotype differentiation. A dendrogram generated using a UPGMA clustering approach organized the landraces into two groups. Cluster-I consists of 56 accessions (93.33%), and Cluster–II consist of 4 Accessions (6.67%) separated by 2374.99, indicating phenotypic differentiation between the groups. These findings underscore the importance of targeted breeding programs based on specific trait performance, supported by further correlation analysis to identify optimal characteristics for breeding. This research highlights the need to continue evaluating these landraces through environmental trials and biotechnological approaches to fully capitalize on their genetic potential for improving wheat cultivation.

Probiotics in aquaculture: A pathway to safer and healthier fish farming

Rakibul Islam — 2024-12-25

Aquaculture benefits greatly from probiotic bacteria, which are also very helpful in preventing a number of infectious diseases. They can be use in place of antibiotics and antimicrobials. Fish that take probiotics have stronger immune systems and grow faster. They aid in the elimination of heavy metals in addition to fostering fish development. Although probiotics can be extracted from a variety of sources, the fish's own stomach is the best source for probiotics. The source of putative probiotics is the same as that of the organism ingesting them. Potential probiotics can flourish in the fish gastrointestinal tract since they are already acclimated to the conditions of the fish gut. Numerous bacteria have been used as probiotics in various experiments, primarily as a feed supplement at varying concentrations. Fish treated with probiotic bacteria have shown positive effects such as improved growth with lower production costs, improved reproductive performances, improved immunology, and disease resistance. When utilized in place of commercial antibiotics and antimicrobials, which can lead to resistance against bacterial species when overused, probiotics can be advantageous for fish farmers. In this paper, aquaculture probiotics, their types, work of mechanism and their uses have been discussed for sustainable aquaculture productivity.

Environmental and human factors affecting Indian major carps' spawning in Halda River, Bangladesh

Kazi Rabeya Akther — 2024-12-25

The spawning success of Indian major carps (IMCs) in the Halda River is intricately linked to favorable environmental and hydrological conditions, which have shown significant variability in recent years. This research aimed to investigate the environmental and anthropogenic factors driving to decline in IMC spawning and propose sustainable management strategies. Field investigations were conducted across four key spawning sites, analyzing hydrological parameters, climatic trends, and anthropogenic influences. Results revealed a sharp decline in IMC spawning success in the year 2021, with egg production dropping to 8,580 kg and fry yield to 105.73 kg which reductions of 66% and 73.3%, respectively, compared to 2020. Key environmental stressors included rising temperatures (contributing 90% of observed variation), reduced rainfall (86%), decreased hill water runoff (84%), and saline intrusion (76%). Anthropogenic disturbances, such as pollution (76%), river bend cutting (80%), rubber dams’ installation (78%), and abandoned sluice gates (84%), intensified these challenges. This study reveals climatic and anthropogenic impacts on IMC spawning decline in the Halda River, stressing the need for ecosystem-based conservation. These findings underscore the urgent need for targeted mitigation measures, including minimizing anthropogenic disturbances and restoring natural river dynamics, to enhance the resilience of IMC spawning habitats and ensure sustainable fisheries in the Halda River.

Econometrics analysis of consumers’ willingness to purchase organic fruits and vegetables in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal

Susan Thapa — 2025-03-25

The number of people interested in environment-friendly products and becoming health-conscious has increased. The tendency of consumers to buy organic fruits and vegetables is growing gradually. Nonetheless, the number of people consuming organic fruits and vegetables is low in the case of Nepal due to the higher price of organic products. As a response to the problem, a study was conducted among 159 people who were randomly surveyed consumers of Kathmandu Valley to determine the various factors affecting the willingness of consumers to pay for organic fruits and vegetables. We used general linear regression model was applied to determine the consumers’ willingness to purchase organic vegetables and fruits. The analysis shows that 46 percent of consumers are willing to pay up to 24 percent for
conventional products. The study found that the factors like Income, and Education were significant factors in determining the willingness of consumers to purchase organic vegetables and fruits. Consumers' health awareness is critical in determining the attitude, intention, and frequency of purchasing organic vegetables and fruits However, this study shows that in underdeveloped nations like Nepal, health issues and environmental issues are not significant factors in consuming organic products, whereas higher income plays a significant role in purchasing organic products.

Isolation and identification of Azotobacter from saline and non-saline soils of Bangladesh

Md. Rafiq Uddin — 2025-03-25

Nitrogen is the most important mineral nutrient required for the plants growth and development. Microbial inoculants have the potential to augment and reduce reliance on expensive chemical fertilizers specially Urea, while maintaining crop productivity. Urea fertilizer not only expensive but also destroy our environment by nitrate pollution. Some microbes have ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen in soil symbiotically in legume crops. However, there are a few reports on non-symbiotic nitrogen fixers for non- leguminous crops. The present study aimed to isolate efficient non symbiotic or free living Azotobacter spp. that could be utilized as potential bio inoculants for resolving the nitrogen deficiency in soil for better growth and development of non-leguminous crops as well as industrial benefits. Nine Azotobacter isolates from saline and non-saline soils of south coastal zones of Bangladesh cultured on Ashby’s agar plates at 28^oC for 1 week. The colonies on the medium were picked up and used for the investigations. Based on morphological and biochemical identifications the isolates were confirmed as Azotobacter spp., isolates showed higher nitrogen fixing abilities (6.95 to 9.89 mg N/g) were selected. Among them, isolate NFA3 performed the best (9.89 mg N/g) regardless of all the tests. These isolates could survive neutral to slightly saline soils and higher temperature. Therefore, isolate NFA3 was considered to be the candidate for industrial usage for the development of nitrogenous biofertilizer.

Tillage and leaf colour chart-guided nitrogen management: Key to growth and yield improvement of winter maize in Chitwan, Nepal

Dinesh Timilsina — 2024-12-25

Maize requires efficient nitrogen management to maximize productivity and sustainability. This research aimed to establish a critical Leaf Colour Chart (LCC) values for maize under zero tillage and conventional tillage. This research also focuses on evaluating LCC-based nitrogen management versus recommended practices. The experiment was conducted during the winter season of 2016-17 at the National Maize Research Program, Rampur, Chitwan, Nepal. The experiment was performed using a strip plot design with three replications. The main plot factor included two tillage methods (conventional and zero tillage) while the sub-plot factor comprised six nutrient management practices, namely nitrogen omission, recommended dose of nitrogen, nitrogen application at leaf color chart (LCC) values 3 (45 kg N/ha), LCC value 4 (88.33 kg N/ha), LCC value 5 (119.7 kg N/ha), and LCC value 6 (140 kg N/ha). Standard split nitrogen application and LCC-based nitrogen management at LCC 4, 5, and 6 critical values resulted in statistically similar LAI during all dates of observations; however, it was high at 90 days after sowing (DAS). Total dry matter accumulation was significantly higher under LCC-5 at 90 DAS. Grain yield was strongly influenced by nitrogen management, with LCC-5 achieving the highest yield (4814.26 kg ha^-1), followed by LCC-6 (4511 kg ha^-1). Conventional tillage slightly outperformed zero tillage in grain yield. According to the study, LCC threshold 5 is useful for real-time nitrogen application in maize. Therefore, maize farmers are encouraged to embrace LCC-based split nitrogen application rather than following standard nitrogen fixed schedules for sustainable and profitable production.

Responses of potato to different methods of zinc and boron application in midhills of Nepal

Reena Sharma — 2024-12-25

Zinc (Zn) and boron (B) are important micronutrients for potato production and they play a critical role to achieve the potential yield. This research was conducted to evaluate the effects of the foliar and soil application of Zn, B, and agriculture lime in enhancing potato (cv. Khumal Bikash) yield and size of tuber. The experiment was conducted for two consecutive years (2022 and 2023) at the National Potato Research Program, Khumaltar, Nepal. Seven fertilizer treatments, namely T₁: recommended dose of NPK (RDF); T₂: RDF+ Zn+ B; T₃: RDF +B +Ag-lime; T₄: RDF +Zn +Ag-lime; T₅: RDF +Zn +B +Ag-Lime; T₆: RDF +(Z +B) foliar Spray; T₇: RDF + foliar Spray (2% urea +2% K) were arranged in a randomized complete block design. Foliar spray was applied twice, once at 40 DAP and again after 60 DAP. Ag-lime was applied before 15 DAP. Among seven treatments, T₆ (RDF +Zn +B foliar spray) showed a significant effect on yield (31.84 t/ha) and its variables including vigor, uniformity and ground cover of potato followed by T₅ (28.81 t/ha) and T₇ compared to the treatments without Zn and B. Foliar application of mixture of Zn and B (3 kg Zn/ha + 2 kg B/ha) significantly improved germination, vigor, sizes and number of tuber and total yield compared to a separate application of Zn or B. The treatment T6 (RDF + Zn + B foliar) demonstrated the highest micronutrient efficiency (1494 kg ) highlighting the superior effectiveness of foliar application compared to other treatments. These findings suggest that micronutrients Zn and B is important to increase potato tuber yield and maximum benefits could be achieved with the foliar application at 2 splits.

Assessment of phenological and physicochemical characteristics of peach (Prunus persica L.) varieties in Mustang, Nepal

Nitisha Bhattarai — 2024-12-25

This research was conducted at the Temperate Horticulture Development Center (THDC), Mustang, Nepal, to study flowering phenology and evaluate the physicochemical characteristics of five peach varieties (Surprise, Benedict, Peregrine, Local Khallya and Early Red) from February to September 2023. This research was conducted on a randomized complete block design with four replications and five treatments (fruit trees of a particular variety were replicated four times). The flowering phenology of varieties was studied by dividing the developmental stages of a flower into eight different stages: first swelling, calyx green, calyx red, first pink, first bloom, full bloom, petal fall and fruit set. The completion of each phenological stage was marked from a reference date. Physicochemical analysis of fruits was performed following UPOV guidelines of peach. Physical characteristics were encompassed in individual fruit weight, fruit length, fruit volume, fruit size (length and width), stone weight, stone size (length and width) and mesocarp thickness and in chemical characteristics, pH, total soluble solids (TSS), titratable acidity (TA) and TSS/TA ratio were included. The study of flowering phenology revealed that Early Red was found to be the earliest (60.50 DARD) to reach the fruit-set stage. The highest and lowest fruit weights were measured in Benedict (153.85 g) and Early Red (46.5 g), respectively. Finally, chemical analysis revealed that TSS/TA was found to be maximum in Benedict (12.38) and minimum in Early Red (6.03). It can be concluded that Early Red was the earliest maturing variety among the varieties. Also, Benedict was found to be the superior in terms of sweetness and size.

Effects of organic fertilizers on the macropropagation, vegetative growth, and pest infestation on plantain (Musa sp.)

Justin Nambangia Okolle — 2025-03-25

One of the major constraints to the expansion of plantain cultivation has been the scarcity of healthy planting material. Decapitation, following macropropagation technology, stimulation of lateral bud development and plantlet production. This study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of decapitation, following macropropagation technology, to stimulate lateral bud development and plantlet production in Musa sp. The experiment was carried out at both the macropropagators' level and in the nursery. The experiment was laid out using the Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with five treatments (Control, T₁– Biozyme, T₂ – Radix Tim, T₃– Compo, and T₄ – DI Grow) with 10 replicates in three blocks. All plants were administered equal amounts of each treatment. The results at the bud incubation level revealed that bud initiation was not significantly dependent on the treatment. Although not significant, the Biozyme^® treatment had the highest mean number of plantlets (46 plants). The organic fertilizers had significant effects (p = 0.001) on the vegetative growth of nursery plants. The maximum vegetative growth (plant height of 7.86±0.32 cm, girth of 10.6±0.3cm, 4±0.12 number of leaves, leaf area of 144 ±5.00 cm²) was recorded with plants treated with T₂ – Radix Tim® (50 ml/7.5 L of water). Snails were the only nursery pests identified, and plants treated with T₃ (Compo®) were more susceptible to snails, with a mean of 0.04±0.02. Net profit margin results for the different treatments were high for T₁ (60) and lowest for T₂ (24). The organic fertilizers have significant effects in improving the vegetative growth of plantains therefore, Radix Tim® and DI Grow® were the best treatments for the production of healthy, vigorous nursery plants.

Agronomic performance and farmers' preferences of twelve spring rice genotypes under participatory approach at Kailali, Nepal

Nabin Ghimire — 2024-12-25

The purpose of this paper was to assess the agronomic performance and farmers’ preferences of spring rice genotypes in collaboration with farmers. This experiment was conducted from February to June, 2023 at Khaira, Bhajani Municipality in Farmer’s Field School. The experiment was laid out in Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD), with three replications, testing twelve rice varieties involving 37 small holder farmers. The individual plot size was 10m × 2m with plant spacing maintained at 20cm × 20cm. The data were analysed using the ANOVA technique in R-Studio software (version 4.0), and Fisher’s Protected LSD test was applied for mean separation. Results revealed that yield and yield attributes along with days to maturity were statistically different among genotypes. Maximum grain yield was found in Chaite-5 (10.75 t/ha) followed by IR16L1831 (10.33 t/ha) which was statistically at par with genotype IR10L118 (10.07 t/ha), while the lowest yields were obtained in Chaite-4 (5.77 t/ha) followed by local check variety Chaini-Local (6.77 t/ha). The findings showed that SVIN-191 (139 days) and Hardinath-5 (138 days) had the highest duration to reach maturity. In contrast, the Chaini-Local variety had the shortest time to maturity, taking only 113 days, while Chaite-4 and IR10L152 required 119 and 122 days, respectively. On participatory varietal selection, the farmer preference score was found maximum in genotype IR10L152 (0.055) followed by a popular variety Chaite-5 (0.047) which signifies these genotypes have certain traits of farmer preference. Moreover, the preference for the genotype IR10L152 above the high-yielding variety Chaite-5 indicates that the farmers in Kailali took several desirable traits into consideration for rice variety selection rather than just high yield.

Impact of varying water-logging durations at various stages of growth on mustard seed yield

Syed Tanvin Abir — 2024-12-25

Waterlogging significantly affects agricultural growth and development, making it a severe constraint limiting crop production and quality. This study aims to assess the level of water tolerance of standard mustard cultivars while taking into account the influence of varied water-logging durations on mustard seed output. In this study, a randomized complete block design was used to examine the effects of water-logging on the various phases of various mustard varieties under ambient temperature and sunshine circumstances. Binasarisha-9, Binasarisha-11 and BARI Sarisha-14 were the varieties utilized in the experiment, and water-logging treatments were applied at different times of 0, 24, 48, and 72 hours at 55–60 days after sowing (DAS). Data on plant height, branches plant^-1, and siliquae plant^-1 were taken from 10 randomly selected plants from each plot. The maturity period was counted when 90% of siliquae matured. The seed yield of each plot was recorded after harvest. The result shows that the highest seed yield (1.51t ha^-1) was found for Binasarisha-11 under water-logging conditions for 24 hours at 55-60 DAS and almost the same result on seed yield (1.46t ha^-1) for Binasarisha-9 was found for the same treatment. Moderate yield at 48 hours water logging was observed whereas there was significant yield reduction for 72 hours water logging. BARI Sarisha-14, Binasarisha-9, and Binasarisha-11 yielded 4.5%, 1.38%, and 11.56% less than non-water-logged situations after 72 hours of water-logging at 55-60 DAS. However, it could be concluded that these results provide valuable insights into the effects of waterlogging on seed yield and can aid in selecting suitable mustard genotypes in flood-prone environments to mitigate the negative effects of climate change.