Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science
Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science (eISSN 2456-6632; abbreviation: Arch. Agric. Environ. Sci.) is a multidisciplinary, quarterly, rigorously peer reviewed journal focused on maintaining the agricultural sustainability for global food security, conservation and restoration of environmental quality for clean and green planet for all. The journal providing a platform for disseminating fundamental evidence based scientific information on sustainable agriculture and environmental conservation. Aims and Scope The journal publishes original research articles, reviews, mini reviews, short communication, and scientific opinions, case studies across the field of agricultural sciences and environmental sciences which report the findings of agriculture sustainability, conservation and restoration of environmental quality. The journal also covering the contemporary issues such as sustainable agriculture, global food security, climate smart agriculture, land reclamation, environmental impacts, conservation, ecosystem restoration, emerging contaminants, biodegradation and remediation, green fuel production, carbon sequestration, climate change mitigation, green and circular economy, organic and natural farming etc. Journal Metrics Launched Year: 2016 | Quarterly Frequency: March, June, September, and December | Submission to First Decision: 07 days | Submission to Acceptance: 45 days | Acceptance to Publication: 15 days Article Processing Charges Indian Authors: 3500 INR | Foreign Country Authors: 35 USD (Equivalent to 3500 INR) Abstracting and Indexing Google Scholar, JGate India, PKP-PN, AGRIS – Food and Agriculture Organization, CORE - Open University and Jisc, BASE (Bielefeld Academic Search Engine), OAI-PMH, EuroPub, WorldCat Library, CrossRef, CrossMark (Article Version Updates), ScienceGate, OpenAlex, Scilit Database: MDPI, and Dimensions Catalogue. View more about indexing information here.
Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy, Haridwar, India
Assessing assisted natural succession for tropical rainforest rehabilitation: Evidence from Gunung Halimun Salak National Park, Indonesia
Rehabilitation zone – a tropical rainforest ecosystem in Gunung Halimun Salak National Park (GHSNP) which had been degraded and restored by reforestation as an approach of assisted natural succession (ANS) to accelerate natural succession (NS) for ecosystem recovery. This study aimed to examine the ecological attributes (vegetation density or cover, carbon storage, and soil properties) in areas that have been rehabilitated through the ANS approach via reintroduction of tree species, and to compare these attributes with those found in natural forest areas (core zone) resulted by NS process. Vegetation density or cover based on NDVI, carbon storage, and soil properties of the tropical rainforest in rehabilitation zone were relatively lower than in the core zone as reference ecosystem. Core zone of the national park conserving biodiversity and their habitat with original and natural attributes without human interferences. NDVI value of tropical rainforest in the rehabilitation zone of GHSNP was relatively lower than in the core zone, namely 0.76 and 0.89, respectively. The ANS approach through revegetation on degraded forested areas (rehabilitation zone) affected positively toward the pathway of ecological succession and stimulated forest recovery, particularly on vegetation density and carbon storage. Vegetation density based on NDVI value was positively correlated with other parameters, including soil organic matter, soil C-organic, soil porosity, and soil respiration. Moreover, vegetation density or cover was also positively correlated with carbon storage, particularly in above ground carbon storage. Besides, vegetation density based on NDVI value showed inverse relationship with the soil bulk density and temperature.
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Effect of various mulching materials on different varieties of watermelon under eastern Nepal agro-climatic conditions
Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) production is often limited by soil moisture stress and low resource-use efficiency, making mulching an effective strategy for improving crop performance. This study evaluated the effects of different mulching materials on growth, yield, and fruit quality of two watermelon varieties under the agro-climatic conditions of eastern Nepal. The experiment was conducted in a two-factor factorial Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with eight treatment combinations and three replications. Two varieties (Sweet Honey and Saraswati) were evaluated under three mulching materials (straw, sawdust, and black plastic mulch) along with a non-mulched control. Mulching significantly (p<0.05) affected plant height, number of leaves, number of branches, titratable acidity, and yield. Black plastic mulch recorded the highest plant height (3.44 m) and yield (22.35 t ha⁻¹), while straw mulch produced highest number of leaves (131.77) and branches (10.06). Among varieties, Saraswati showed higher firmness (9.03 kg cm⁻²) and leaf number (101.51), whereas Sweet Honey produced heavier fruits (2.74 kg). Significant interaction effects were observed for leaves, branches, titratable acidity, and firmness. The highest leaf number (138.75), branch number (11.75), and firmness (9.73 kg cm⁻²) were recorded in Sweet Honey × Straw mulch, Saraswati × Straw mulch, and Saraswati × Sawdust mulch, respectively. No significant effects were observed on pH, total soluble solids, node diameter, pulp weight, and fruit diameter. Therefore, black plastic mulch maximizes yield, while straw mulch enhances vegetative growth and provides a sustainable, low-cost alternative. Integration of suitable mulching practices with the Saraswati variety can improve watermelon productivity under eastern Nepal conditions.
Evaluation of ground water quality of Saharanpur constituency in Uttar Pradesh, India
This study was conducted to evaluate the groundwater quality at designated sites in the Saharanpur area of Uttar Pradesh, India, focusing on key physicochemical attributes and their statistical relationships. Water samples were collected from four sites and analysed using standard assessment methods. The parameters measured included temperature, pH, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), dissolved oxygen (DO), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), total alkalinity (TA), total hardness (TH), and major ions. The results showed that groundwater quality was largely within acceptable limits for municipal and agricultural use. Temperature ranged from 24.67±1.53 to 29.33±1.22°C, and pH values varied between 6.71±0.51 to 7.26±0.27, indicating a slightly acidic to neutral nature EC and TDS levels ranged from 0.57±0.03 to 0.97±0.08 dS m-¹ and 198.31±10.09 to 263.65±11.13 mg L-¹, respectively, reflecting low salinity. DO values ranged from 5.24±0.56 to 6.55±0.15 mg L-¹, while BOD (1.52±0.27–1.98±0.08 mg L-¹) and COD (4.88±1.57–8.69±1.43 mg L-¹) indicated limited organic load. TA and TH suggested the water was relatively mineral-rich. Statistical analysis revealed significant positive relationships among EC, TDS, and major ions, whereas DO and pH showed opposite trends with salinity parameters. The study highlights that although groundwater quality is currently safe, increasing human-induced stress may progressively alter regional hydrochemistry, necessitating continuous monitoring and well-planned groundwater management strategies for long-term sustainability.
Farmers’ knowledge, attitudes, and management practices regarding Tuta absoluta in Xumbowayne village, Maroodijeex district, Somaliland
This study assessed farmers’ knowledge, attitudes, and management practices (KAP) regarding Tuta absoluta in Xumbowayne Village, Maroodijeex District, Somaliland, and examined gaps between knowledge and practice. A simple random sampling technique was employed to collect data from 118 participants using a structured interview schedule and focus group discussions (FGDs). Descriptive statistics, chi-square tests, and Cramér’s V were applied for data analysis. Results showed that while most farmers had high knowledge (72.0%), the majority exhibited low attitudes (66.1%) and moderate practices (89.8%), with 72.0% falling under low overall KAP. Chemical control was found the dominant strategy, with limited adoption of integrated pest management (IPM). Although KAP components were significantly associated, higher knowledge did not translate into better practices. Education (V = 0.841, p < 0.001) and farm size (V = 0.508, p < 0.001) significantly influenced knowledge and management practices. Therefore, the findings of this study reveal a clear knowledge practice gap driven by institutional and resource constraints, highlighting the need for improved extension services and practical IPM interventions.
Biology and eco-friendly management of cowpea weevil (Callosobruchus maculatus) in pea
A study was conducted in the Entomology laboratory of Gauradaha Agriculture Campus at Jhapa district of Nepal to observe the biology and evaluate the efficacy of botanicals against cowpea weevil (Callosobruchus maculatus), which causes serious seed losses of leguminous crops during storage. The cowpea weevil was observed to complete its life cycle with egg-larva-pupal stages lasting 7-18-5 days respectively and the adult lived for 16 days. A completely randomized design was laid with 3 replications of seven treatments; neem (leaf powder) mugwort (leaf powder), sweet flag (rhizome powder), turmeric (rhizome powder), black pepper (seed powder), clove (seed powder), and lemongrass (leaf powder), each 10gm kg-1 pea seeds and compared to an untreated control. Adult mortality and grain damage were recorded for 14 days after treatment at 2 days’ interval. Significant (p ≤ 0.001) differences in the mortality of weevils and grain damage were observed among the treatments. Black pepper showed the highest efficacy with full mortality within 2 days and least grain damage (1.94%) followed by clove (3.33%) and sweet flag (6.67%) reaching full mortality within 4 days, lemongrass (17.50%) and turmeric (14.16%) reached 100% mortality within 12 and 14 days, while neem and mugwort showed very slow effectiveness causing 90% and 86.66% mortality in 14 days and significant grain damage. However, untreated pea seeds suffered severe grain damage (35.83%) and provided conditions for the development of new generation weevils. The results depicted that the use of botanicals provide protection against grain damage, demonstrating their potential as an eco-friendly measure for sustainable storage pest management in legumes.
Assessing the economic and environmental footprint of retail-level food loss: Evidence from Gauradaha Municipality, Nepal
Food loss in vegetable markets creates economic losses and environmental pressure, especially in countries like Nepal where market infrastructure is still limited. This study examines the economic and environmental impacts of food loss in the retail vegetable market of Gauradaha Municipality, Jhapa district, Nepal. Primary data were collected from surveys of 20 vegetable vendors, supported by secondary data. The extent and causes of postharvest losses were analyzed, and economic losses were calculated using prevailing market prices. Environmental impacts were estimated using carbon and water footprint approaches based on life cycle assessment (LCA) methods. The results show that retailers experience an average economic loss of NPR 350.53 per week, representing approximately 5% of their income. Each retailer also faced an average environmental burden of 33.96 kg CO2-equivalent and a water footprint of 6,486.35 liters per week due to unsold and spoiled produce. The main causes of loss include over-ripening, loss of freshness, inadequate storage facilities, and insufficient packaging. The results suggest that practical measures such as improved storage, careful handling, and better packaging could help to reduce these losses. Reducing these inefficiencies could improve vendor income and lower environmental impacts, showing the importance of linking economic and sustainability aspects in local market systems.
Variation in soil properties due to on-field residue burning in sugarcane based agro-ecosystems of Central India
Crop residue burning is a widespread practice in India that significantly affects the environment, climate, human health, and soil quality by altering nutrient dynamics and soil biological activity. Despite its known adverse consequences, it remains a common residue management method. The present study was conducted during 2022-2023 across three sugarcane fields in Narsinghpur district of Madhya Pradesh, to evaluate the short-term effects of sugarcane residue burning on soil physicochemical properties. Soil samples were collected before and after burning within the same cropping season to assess immediate changes. Results revealed increases in soil pH (8.05 to 8.13), electrical conductivity (110.69±14.27 to 163.09±4.78 µs/ppm), soil organic carbon (1.02±0.19 to 1.15±0.16 %), phosphorus (21.26±7.73 to 22.95±7.80 kg/ha), manganese, iron, and zinc. In contrast, nitrogen (56.45±3.62 to 54.35±5.53 kg/ha), potassium (162.97±14.17 to 133.77±11.50 kg/ha), and copper (1.92±0.09 to 1.73±0.05 µg/g) declined. Compared to pre-burn conditions, on-field residue burning increased soil organic carbon and phosphorus by 12.75% and 7.95%, respectively, while reducing potassium and nitrogen by 21.83% and 3.84%. Overall, the investigation indicates that residue burning leads to a short-term improvement in certain soil chemical properties, likely due to ash deposition, but also results in nutrient imbalances and losses of essential elements such as N, K, and Cu. These findings highlight the transient nature of nutrient enrichment following burning and emphasize the need for long-term studies to assess its sustained effects on soil health.
Major diseases of rice in Asia: Occurrence, impact, and management strategies with special focus on south Asia
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is the principal staple food of South Asia, supporting the livelihoods and nutrition of over 1.8 billion people across India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. Despite its critical importance, rice production in the region is persistently undermined by a wide spectrum of diseases caused by fungi, bacteria, viruses, and nematodes, which collectively cause yield losses ranging from 10 to 80 percent annually. This review aims to synthesize the current status, epidemiology, economic impact, and management of the major rice diseases of South Asia, and to highlight the role of emerging artificial intelligence (AI) tools for sustainable disease control. Ten major diseases were classified into four causal-agent groups, and seven of greatest economic significance were analyzed in detail Rice Blast (Magnaporthe oryzae), Bacterial Leaf Blight (Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae), Sheath Blight (Rhizoctonia solani), Brown Spot (Bipolaris oryzae), False Smut (Ustilaginoidea virens), Bakanae (Fusarium fujikuroi) and Rice Tungro Virus. Maximum reported yield losses were 80% for Rice Tungro, 70% for Rice Blast, 60% for Bacterial Leaf Blight, 50% for Sheath Blight and 58% for Brown Spot, with an estimated regional economic burden of US$ 4–10 billion per year. Thus, integration of host resistance with AI-assisted, edge-deployable diagnostic systems offers a region-specific and climate-adaptive pathway for sustainable rice disease management in South Asia, distinct from the chemical-centric approaches that have so far dominated the region.
Efficacy of different nitrogen doses and pinching nodes on performance of African marigold (Tagetes erecta L. cv. Karma-555)
Marigold cultivation holds substantial religious value and commercial potential worldwide; however, suboptimal nitrogen management and improper pinching practices often limit flower yield and quality. This study aimed to identify the optimal nitrogen dose and pinching node for improved growth and yield of marigold. The experiment was conducted at the Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science, Tribhuvan University, Lamjung Campus, Nepal, using a two-factorial Randomized Complete Block Design with three replications. Treatments included three nitrogen levels (150, 200, and 250 kg ha-¹) and three pinching regimes (no pinching, pinching at the 2nd node, and pinching at the 4th node). The interaction of 200 kg N ha-¹ with pinching at the 2nd node produced the highest number of primary branches (16.67). The maximum number of flowers per plant (58.08) was recorded at 200 kg N ha-¹, while pinching at the 2nd node resulted in the highest flower count (65.15). Flower weight was not significantly influenced by pinching treatments. A positive correlation was observed between the number of primary branches and flower number per plant. The findings indicate that the combined application of 200 kg N ha-¹ and pinching at the 2nd node enhances lateral branching and maximizes flower yield. This integrated practice can be recommended as an efficient practical approach for improving both productivity and quality in marigold cultivation under similar agro-ecological conditions.
Baseline assessment of farmer perception on the prevalence of red spider mites in smallholder vegetable production systems in The Gambia
Red spider mites (genus Tetranychus) are among the most destructive arthropod pests affecting vegetable crops globally, particularly in tropical and subtropical production systems. Their rapid reproductive rate, extensive host range, and increasing resistance to acaricides make them a persistent constraint to vegetable productivity. This study aimed to assess farmer perceptions of the prevalence, severity, and crop growth stages associated with red spider mite infestations in smallholder vegetable production systems in The Gambia. A baseline survey was conducted in 2015 among 60 farmers randomly selected from six villages across three major vegetable-producing regions. Data were collected using structured questionnaires and analyzed with descriptive statistics. Results indicated that multiple vegetable crops were affected, with the highest infestation reported in okra (23.56%), bitter tomato (Solanum aethiopicum) (23.08%), and eggplant (22.12%), while tomato accounted for 9.13% of reported infestations. Infestations were most frequently observed during the flowering stage (42.31%), followed by maturity (32.69%). A majority of farmers (66.35%) perceived infestations as very severe, while 28.85% reported severe infestations. These findings confirm that red spider mites represent a significant production constraint in The Gambia. The study concludes that reliance on chemical control alone is unsustainable due to resistance development and recurring infestations. Strengthening integrated pest management (IPM) strategies, including biological control with predatory mites and the use of botanical pesticides, offers a novel and environmentally friendly pathway for sustainable management. This baseline evidence provides a foundation for future pest surveillance, farmer training, and the development of context-specific IPM packages to safeguard vegetable productivity and farmer livelihoods in The Gambia.
Changes in agroforestry practices in response to climate change and associated factors in Mangsebung Rural Municipality, Ilam district, Eastern Nepal
Agroforestry is a cornerstone of rural livelihoods in the mid-hills of Nepal, but its patterns are being reshaped by climate change and a set of associated socio-economic and technological factors. This study aimed to document the prevailing agroforestry practices, identify the drivers of change in those practices, and assess the contribution of evolving technologies in Mangsebung Rural Municipality of Ilam district in Nepal. A cross-sectional study was carried out using a structured household questionnaire, supplemented by key informant interviews, focus group discussions and direct field observations. Data was analyzed in Microsoft Excel using descriptive statistics. Results revealed that four major agroforestry practices were identified in the study area including home garden, horticulture-based agroforestry, agri-silviculture, and silvi-pasture. Climate change emerged as the most frequently cited driver of change, followed by market demand, community participation, government policies, and invasive species. Cardamom (under Alnus nepalensis), broom grass (Thysanolaena maxima), kiwi, and coffee have largely replaced traditional subsistence crops such as millet and barley, reflecting a marked transition from subsistence to commercial agroforestry. Major constraints include weather extremes, pest and disease pressure, irrigation scarcity, labor shortage, and weak institutional support. The study concludes that targeted policy support, climate-resilient species, and farmer training are required to sustain agroforestry-based livelihoods in the eastern mid-hills of Nepal.
Bridging the gluten-free gap: A critical review of grain amaranth as a functional ingredient in global and east African food systems
This critical review explores the possibilities of incorporating grain amaranth (Amaranthus spp.) as a functional ingredient to bridge gaps in the nutritional status of global gluten-free diets, thus enhancing food and nutritional security in East Africa. A comprehensive literature search was conducted across Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, ScienceDirect and Google Scholar on peer reviewed papers, government policies and reports covering years 2015-2025, including some seminal earlier publications. The grains have ~16.6% protein content in the dry matter, contain high amounts of lysine (5.3-6.3 g/100g protein), ~7.2% lipids that consist of significant amounts of squalene (2-8% of total oil) and a high concentration of dietary fibre (7.1-16.4%), as well as extremely high amounts of iron (7.6 mg/100g), magnesium (248 mg/100g) and manganese (3.4 mg/100g). Processing methods like germination, extrusion, fermentation and Instant Controlled Pressure Drop decrease phytate levels by ~30%, oxalate levels up to 83% and tannin levels by ~32%, and increase protein digestibility in vitro to greater than 83% compared to 76%. Global market analysis shows that the industry is worth USD 9.3-12.58 billion (2024) and expected to grow to USD 19.26-30.07 billion by 2030-2032 (CAGR 9.4-18.1%). Unique nutritional benefits, climate resistance, processibility and other properties make the grain ideal for use, but its widespread adoption remains hindered by poor value chains in East Africa and competitive positioning of quinoa in Europe. Strategic investments in breeding, decentralized processing, informed communications, and formal inclusion in food policies are necessary for promoting amaranth as a functional ingredient.
Rhizosphere microbial communities: Drivers of nutrient cycling, plant health, and soil fertility
Soil microbial communities, particularly those inhabiting the rhizosphere, play a fundamental role in regulating nutrient cycling, plant health, and soil fertility within agroecosystems. The rhizosphere represents a biologically active microenvironment enriched with root exudates such as sugars, amino acids, and organic acids, which stimulate microbial colonization, metabolic activity, and complex plant–microbe interactions. These interactions drive essential biogeochemical processes, including nitrogen fixation, nitrification, denitrification, and nutrient mineralization, thereby sustaining soil productivity and ecosystem stability. Diverse microbial groups including nitrogen-fixing microorganisms, phosphate-solubilizing microbes, zinc-mobilizing bacteria and fungi, and mycorrhizal fungi enhance nutrient bioavailability by transforming nutrients into plant-accessible forms and improving nutrient uptake efficiency. This review presents the management practices strongly influence rhizosphere microbial composition and ecological network dynamics, with organic and no-till systems generally supporting more stable and complex fungal and bacterial interactions compared to conventional systems. Functional microbial consortia, particularly plant growth–promoting bacteria and indigenous bio-inoculants, contribute to soil fertility through nutrient mobilization, biofilm formation, and improved root architecture. Additionally, microbial colonization and signaling processes, mediated by root exudates and molecular communication, regulate both beneficial symbioses and pathogenic interactions in the rhizosphere. Environmental factors, host plant traits, and biotic stresses such as nematode parasitism further shape microbial community structure and functional pathways, including nitrogen fixation and pathogen-related mechanisms. Overall, a diverse and active soil microbiome enhances nutrient cycling, soil structure, and resilience to environmental stresses, reducing reliance on chemical inputs.
Nutrition governance in Uganda’s food fortification programme: A systematic review of regulatory frameworks, institutional capacity, financing mechanisms and programme evaluation
Uganda’s food fortification programme presents a paradox of strong legislative intent but weak implementation, with significant implications for public health and nutrition governance. Despite mandatory regulations enacted in 2005 and amended in 2011, compliance remains uneven only 30% of maize flour and 50% of cooking oil meet national fortification standards, compared to 95% for salt. This review synthesizes findings from over 220 documents spanning policy and institutional performance to assess Uganda’s fortification landscape. Key challenges include fragmented institutional mandates among UNBS, NDA, and MoH, and limited enforcement capacity with weak penalties and infrequent inspections. Comparative analysis with countries like South Africa, Bangladesh, and Vietnam reveals that clear mandates, fiscal incentives, and robust monitoring systems are critical to success. Uganda’s placement in the lower-left quadrant of the global Fortification Performance Matrix characterized by low compliance and immature policy systems underscores the need for integrated reforms. These include revising legislation, expanding fiscal incentives, strengthening institutional capacity, and aligning food vehicles with consumption data. The review concludes that without strategic investment in governance and enforcement, Uganda risks missing the full potential of food fortification to combat micronutrient malnutrition and achieve its national nutrition targets.
Industry compliance in national micronutrient food fortification programmes: A systematic review with lessons for Uganda
Large-scale food fortification remains a critical strategy for reducing micronutrient deficiencies, but its effectiveness depends on whether industries consistently fortify foods to standard. This review synthesizes global evidence on industry compliance across major food vehicles, including salt, wheat flour, maize flour, edible oil, sugar, and condiments, and applies the findings to Uganda’s programme improvement agenda. A systematic review was conducted using peer-reviewed articles, programme evaluations, policy analyses, survey reports, and Uganda-specific regulatory documents retrieved from academic databases and institutional sources. The synthesis incorporated evidence from Africa, Asia, and Latin America, including Uganda and comparator settings such as Senegal, Tanzania, Kenya, Nigeria, Malawi, Mozambique, Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Chile, and Costa Rica. The evidence shows that compliance is shaped by regulatory clarity, market structure, premix and equipment costs, quality assurance, external monitoring, political commitment, and credible enforcement. Compliance tends to be stronger in centralized industries such as wheat flour and edible oil, but weaker in fragmented maize markets and among smaller millers. Across countries, a persistent fortification quality gap remains between foods that are legally covered or reportedly fortified and foods that are adequately fortified at production, market, and household levels. Uganda reflects this broader pattern: although the legal and policy framework is established, compliance remains uneven across food vehicles, with stronger adherence among salt, wheat flour, and edible oil producers than among maize millers. Therefore, Uganda should strengthen production-based verification, improve inter-agency coordination, adopt differentiated compliance strategies by processor scale and vehicle, and invest in practical monitoring and enforcement systems that make sustained compliance feasible.
Evaluation of herbal shampoo formulated using Gymnocladus burmanicus and Dillenia indica extract
The present work was undertaken under the clean and green technology initiative to provide a natural, ecofriendly healthy shampoo formulation using the natural herbal ingredients. Hair care products like shampoo is one of the fastest growing industry but most of the commercial shampoo is formulated with the ingredients of synthetic components like sodium lauryl sulfates, paraben and silicone, these ingredients are attributed to skin irritation, regular use of these ingredients may even cause tumour therefore these ingredients are harmful to soil, aquatic life and also not environmental friendly. This study was carried out to formulate a natural shampoo by using Gymnocladus burmanicus, a natural detergent tree; this natural soap is used in hair wash and also as an anti dandruff among the tribal people of Arunachal Pradesh. Another tree called Dillenia indica is used as a hair conditioner in Arunachal Pradesh. For the first time, a natural shampoo is formulated by using ingredients of G. burmanicus and D. indica in this study. Hot extraction methods were used to extract the biological contents from the plant samples. Various shampoo evaluation parameters including detergency, odour, appearance, colour, foam formation etc. was evaluated in the study as per standard protocols. The natural shampoo formulated was found to be light brown in colour, lemonic in aroma, medium bubble formation, very high in detergency capacity. The result of the formulated shampoo indicates a promising scope in the development of a new and better hair wash for the user as well as for the environmental safety.
Effect of different mulching materials on growth and yield of garlic (Allium sativum L.) in Khajura, Banke, Nepal
A field experiment was conducted in Khajura, Banke, Nepal, to evaluate the effect of different mulching materials on the growth, and yield of garlic (Allium sativum L.). The study was based on a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) consisting of four replications and five treatments, i.e. control (no mulch), black plastic, rice straw, wheat straw and lentil straw. Data were recorded on germination, growth parameters, yield attributes and soil moisture status. Statistical analysis revealed significant effects of mulching materials on most growth, yield, and soil moisture parameters. Plastic mulch outperformed all other treatments with tallest plants (68.13 cm), maximum number of leaves (5.83) along with maximum bulb diameter (4.30 cm), cloves per bulb (18.35), bulb weight (27.06 g), total biomass yield (19.96 t/ha), economic yield (15.08 t/ha), and soil moisture content (21.43%). Lentil Straw followed it with plant height of 67.05 cm, 5.56 leaves, bulb diameter of 4.30 cm, 15.85 cloves per bulb, bulb weight of 24.72 g, total biomass yield of 17.47 t/ha, economic yield of 13.77 t/ha, and soil moisture content of 19.51%. Rice straw and wheat straw showed considerable performance over control plots with economic yields of 11.57 t/ha and 11.68 t/ha, respectively, compared to only 7.67 t/ha in bare soil. Based on this study, plastic mulch is the most effective practice for maximizing garlic productivity in Khajura, Banke and Lentil straw mulch is suggested as an environmentally sustainable alternative.
Economic and environmental assessment of food wastage in Gauradaha municipality, Nepal
Household food waste presents a growing challenge to both economic security and environmental sustainability, particularly in rural agricultural regions. This study evaluated the economic and environmental implications of food waste at household level in Gauradaha Municipality, Jhapa district, Nepal. Based on a structured survey of 51 households using a self-administered questionnaire, the research examined factors influencing food waste generation and its associated costs. Data were analyzed using MS Excel and RStudio. One-way ANOVA, Pearson correlation, and proportions were analyzed in R to examine the effects of gender, education, and family size on waste generation, whereas MS Excel was used to assess the quantity of economic and environmental impacts. Economic valuation revealed that household food waste results in a loss of approximately NRS 35.21 (0.24 USD) per household per week, equivalent to less than 1% of annual household income. Environmentally, each household's food wastage contributes an estimated 0.92 kg of CO₂ emissions and consumes nearly 477.70 liters of water. Among food categories, cereals were identified as having the highest economic and environmental impact. Furthermore, overcooking emerged as the leading cause of waste, with refrigeration being the most commonly used storage method, yet no measures of value addition, processing and sustainable storage methods were practiced effectively, which reflects changing lifestyles, urbanization, and time constraints. These findings underscore the urgent need for targeted strategies that address food waste behaviour, promote efficient storage practices, and reduce the broader sustainability burdens at the household level in rural Nepal.
Effects of nitrogen levels on growth and yield of mustard greens (Brassica juncea var. rugosa) in Gauradaha-2, Jhapa, Nepal
This experimental study was carried out at the research field of Gauradaha Agriculture Campus, Tribhuvan University, Jhapa, during the year 2024 to 2025. The aim of this study was to find the optimum level of nitrogen (Urea) fertilizer that provides maximum yield of mustard (Marpha broad leaf) greens under the local climatic conditions. The experiment was laid out in a Randomised Complete Block Design (RCBD) with five treatments and four replications. Urea was used to provide the nitrogen to the mustard greens plants. Five nitrogen doses (T0 =0 kg per ha, T1= 75 kg per ha, T2 = 100 kg per ha, T3 = 125 kg per ha, and T4 = 150 kg per ha) were used as treatment variables for the fertilization of mustard greens in the experiment. Plant height, leaf number, leaf length, leaf width, and yield of mustard greens were the parameters taken into consideration, with three harvests carried out at an interval of 20 days. The results showed that different doses on nitrogen diversely affected the different parameters of mustard greens. The plant height (36.75) and leaf number (8.5) were highest at T3, and leaf length (25.48), leaf width (21.2) and yield (3.03) of mustard greens were recorded highest at T2. Therefore, a dose of 100 kg per ha of Urea can be recommended as an optimum dose of nitrogen for the commercial production of mustard greens in Gauradaha-2, Jhapa, Nepal.
Smallholder farmers' perceptions of climate-smart practices in oilseed and pulse production: Evidence from Barguna district, Bangladesh
This study aimed to assess farmers’ perceptions, adoption patterns, and constraints related to climate-smart agricultural (CSA) practices in oilseed and pulse production in Barguna district in Bangladesh. A mixed-methods research design was employed, integrating quantitative household surveys of 120 farmers selected through stratified random sampling. The results showed that mustard was the dominant oilseed crop by 75.83%, followed by sesame 45.00%, sunflower 37.50%, groundnut 31.67%, and soybean by 26.67%, while pulse cultivation remained limited, particularly grass pea by 10.83% and mung bean 20.00%. The study found that extreme climate events were reported by 78.33% of farmers, waterlogging by 77.50%, soil salinity by 66.67%, and limited extension access by 76.67%. Meanwhile, input constraints were reported by 53.33%, lack of quality seed by 67.50%, and credit limitations by 53.33%. Despite these challenges, farmers reported access to government support at 90.83%, short-duration varieties at 81.67%, and cooperative farming at 77.50%. Adoption of improved drainage systems was reported by 66.67% of farmers, and crop rotation by 54.17%, while adoption of integrated pest management at 23.33% and advanced climate-smart technologies at 28.33% remained low. Therefore, oilseeds and pulses offer strong potential for climate-resilient, diversified agriculture in coastal Bangladesh, adoption remains constrained by intersecting environmental, institutional, and knowledge barriers, necessitating integrated policy and extension interventions to bridge the gap between potential and practice.
Performance of two rice varieties in different numbers of seedlings hill-1 at Khairahani, Chitwan, Nepal
A field experiment was conducted from June to October 2022 at Khairahani Municipality, Chitwan, Nepal, to evaluate the effects of the number of seedlings (one, two, three, and four) hill -1 and rice varieties (US-305 and Ramdhan) on rice yield. The number of seedlings hill-1 is one of the most important factors for determining rice yield. Farmers need to know the appropriate number of seedlings hill-1 needed for different rice varieties. Thus, we aimed to evaluate the performance of two rice varieties under different numbers of seedlings hill-1, to determine the optimum number of seedlings hill-1 or improving rice yield at Khairahani, Chitwan, Nepal. The experiment was conducted in a randomized complete block design with three replications. Seedlings of both varieties were planted at a spacing of 20×20 cm. The study focused on various growth and yields, attributing parameters of rice, including plant height, tiller number, effective tillers, thousand grain weight, grain yield per hectare, and biological yield per hectare. The number of seedlings hill-1 was found to have the highest impact on yield attributing characters. The highest plant height (124.72 cm), effective tiller per square meter (342), panicle length (28.65 cm), number of filled grains per panicle (120.43), economic yield, biological yield, and HI were found in two seedlings, hill-1. Whereas one seedling hill-1 had the highest effective grains per panicle (142.66), test weight (24.23g), and straw yield (10.63 t/ha). Thus, US-305 had better growth and yield attributes, suggesting farmers of Khairahani can combine two seedlings of US 305.
Marketing structure and factors affecting retail price of coastal area fish market in Bangladesh
To demonstrate a systematic and organized marketing strategy, it is necessary to have insight about fisheries marketing structure and fish availability of that fish market. This study was conducted to explain the pricing dynamics, species availability, and marketing system of fish in Kabirhat Upazila, Noakhali district, Bangladesh, from July 2024 to February 2025. Data were collected from four major fish markets through questionnaire surveys (n = 289) based Cochran’s formula for calculating sample size. Microsoft Excel and statistical PAST 4.03 software were used to analyse the data collected by questionnaire surveys and cross-check interviews with key informants. A total of 23 fish species and 2 crustacean species were recorded, where average price of Tenualosa ilisha (1294.16BDT/kg) and Penaeus monodon (769.16BDT/kg) were recorded higher in all the fish markets. Nine marketing channels involving multiple intermediaries between fisher and consumer were identified. Marketing cost analysis indicated icing (34%) and transportation (27%) as principle cost components. Fishers’ share of consumer prices ranged from 61.46% to 73.83%, while intermediaries’ share ranged from 16.90% to 29.90%. Most respondents were middle-aged (41–50 years), educated up to Class VI–XI, and had 10–20 years of marketing experience. Regression analysis revealed that landing center distance (β=-1.714), age (β=-2.302) and years of experience (β=-1.511) affected negatively, whereas marketing channels (β=0.553), marketing costs (β=1.929), and education level (β=0.216) had significant positive effects (p < 0.05) on retail prices. The findings indicate the requirement of improved infrastructure and streamlined marketing channels to enhance market efficiency and fishers’ income.
Growth performance and nutrients digestibility of cockerels fed varying levels of Garri-waste as replacement of maize
This study evaluated the effects of replacing maize with gaari-waste on the performance and nutrient digestibility of cockerels. One hundred and twenty cockerels were fed diets with 0%, 25%, 50% and 75% gaari-waste replacing maize for 70 days to determine the optimal level of gaari-waste inclusion in the cockerel diets. Experiments was conducted under completely randomized design (CRD) design using four dietary treatments, three replicates, and ten birds per replicate. Results revealed no significant difference (p>0.05) in feed intake, weight gain and feed conversion ratio among treatments. Birds fed diet-1, diet-3 and diet-4 at the starter phase had the highest values of weight gain 40.41g, 33.26g and 30.66g, respectively while weight gains decreased as the inclusion levels of garri-waste increased as followed 45.77g, 43.03g, 38.77g and 35.67g for T1, T2, T3 and T4 across dietary treatments, respectively. The highly significant (p<0.05) effect of crude protein (82.91), fiber (53.33) and dry matter digestibility (46.14) were observed with T2 treatment, the least (68.63%) crude protein digestibility was obtained on the T1 treatment while ash and dry matter digestibility with T4 treatment had the least significant (p<0.05) effect of 30.77% and 22.08%, respectively. Conclusively, garri-waste can replace maize in cockerels’ diets up to 75% without adverse effects on growth performance and apparent nutrient digestibility, offering a cost-effective alternative to maize.
Adoption of circular economy practices in agricultural SMEs: A comparative study of Nepal and the UK
Agricultural small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) face mounting pressure to adopt sustainable business models, yet their ability to transition to circular economy (CE) practices differs across institutional and resource contexts. This study addresses the limited understanding of how CE adoption unfolds in agriculture within contrasting national settings by comparing agricultural SMEs in Nepal and the United Kingdom. The purpose is to investigate the processes of establishing CE practices in these firms and determine their effects on sustainability and business performance. A mixed-methods approach was employed, combining survey data with quantitative analysis. The results show significantly higher CE awareness in the UK (61%) than in Nepal (19.4%). The outcome shows marked differences in support systems of the countries (32.7% UK vs 47.2% Nepal). Yet, technical advice was reported to be 47.2% in Nepal and 22.4% in the UK which suggests that support in Nepal is largely advisory in nature and often led by NGOs. The results of this investigation indicate that adoption patterns are determined by institutional frameworks and resource abilities: in Nepal, low levels of awareness and capacity limitations are dominant, whereas in the UK, cynicism and scale issues are predominant. Environmental outcomes are realized earlier and more regularly than the economic or social benefits. This study advances CE diffusion theory by demonstrating that early environmental gains pave the way for weighted outcomes in resource-constrained settings.
Hexanal and Salicylic acid: Improves postharvest quality and shelf life of strawberry (Fragaria ananassa cv. Winter Dawn) under low storage temperature
Postharvest quality and shelf life of strawberry are highly susceptible to rapid ripening and decay, leading to significant economic losses from grower’s perspective. Therefore, study was conducted to evaluate the effects of hexanal and salicylic acid as dip treatment under different storage temperatures on physico-chemical and biochemical attributes of strawberry (Fragaria ananassa cv. Winter Dawn) fruits. The study consisted ten treatments combinations and three replications. Fruits were treated with hexanal @ 4mM, stored at 6 ºC temperatures and exhibited highest shelf life (24 days), reduced physiological weight loss (7.52%), lower decay incidence (26.66%), better firmness retention (3.96 kg/cm2), higher retention of ascorbic acid (47.42mg/100gm), phenolic compounds (288.37 mg GE/100g), and antioxidant activity (64.19% DPPH inhibition) at 16 DAS. Salicylic acid also extended shelf life (14 days) and maintained biochemical properties compared to control. These effects are associated with reduced enzymatic activity related to ripening, lower respiration rates, and modulation of oxidative processes, hence can be recommended as a practical and efficient postharvest handling tools to extend shelf life and biochemical properties of strawberry.
Survey and efficacy test of selected botanical pesticides to manage maize weevil at Gauradaha, Jhapa, Nepal
This study was carried out in eastern terai-Gauradaha municipality, Jhapa-of Nepal to evaluate the effectiveness of locally available botanicals for managing the maize weevil (Sitophilus zeamais). Lab experiment was set up in Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with 7 treatments and 3 replications. Six botanicals such as Acorus calamus, Azadirachta indica, Melia azedarach, Artemisia vulgaris, Eucalyptus globulus and Curcuma longa were compared with the control. The botanicals were used in dust forms at the rate of 2g/200g of maize grains. Maize grains were infested with Sitophilus zeamais at the rate of 20 adults/200g. In preference analysis, 66% farmers preferred the use of botanicals, 12% preferred using chemicals and 22% preferred both. On the 28 days of treatment, the highest mortality of maize weevil recorded was 100% in A. calamus and the lowest mortality of maize weevil recorded was 45% in control. Grain damage and weight loss were recorded significantly highest (17.15% and 24.33%, respectively) in control and lowest (0% and 0%) in A. calamus. Also, 100% weevil mortality was observed in A. calamus within 7 days, making it the most effective. Turmeric followed closely with 85% mortality within 28 days followed by chinaberry (78.33%) and neem (75%) during the study. Therefore, varied concentrations of these botanicals can be used to find out effective dose for the management of weevil and further suggests farmers to use recommended dose of botanical pesticides.
Exploring the drivers of commercial farming adoption among farmers in Mymensingh, Bangladesh
This study investigates the drivers influencing the adoption of commercial farming as rice farms transition into diversified commercial enterprises. A sample of 120 respondents was randomly selected for primary data collection from Mymensingh Sadar and Muktagachha upazilas in the Mymensingh district of Bangladesh, and they were chosen for their notable adoption of commercial farming. Among the respondents, 40 were engaged in rice farming, while 80 were involved in commercial farming due to its higher prevalence. The analysis utilized both descriptive statistics and econometric methods, particularly binary logistic regression. The findings reveal that 98.8% of commercial farmers fell within the age range of 30 to 64 years, with only 1.2% exceeding 64 years. Moreover, commercial farmers exhibited a higher level of education compared to their rice farming counterparts. The econometric analysis indicated that education, access to extension services, and access to information significantly and positively influence the adoption of commercial farming. This underscored the critical importance of prioritizing education, extension services, and information accessibility to facilitate the swift adoption of commercial farming. This study proposing effective policy recommendations aimed at enhancing diversified commercial farming practices and optimizing land use for the increased profitability of rural farmers.
Onion bulb rot disease affecting yield of women producers in rural communities of the Gambia
The surge of onion bulb rot disease poses a significant threat to smallholder farmers who depend on onion production as source of income. This study was conducted on onion bulb rot disease affecting the onion yield of women farmers in rural communities of Gambia to determine the onion bulb rot dissemination and damage caused by the disease. The sampling procedures was purposive method with a sample size of ninety farmers were interviewed. The data was analyzed for descriptive statistics presented in frequencies and percentages using SPSS software. The result showed that 60% of respondents indicate soft rot bulbs, 30% of leaf drops while 10% of the respondents indicate slime flux discharge from the root basal. The results indicated that majority 65% of the onion growers prepared their own nurseries for seedlings production and 30% of producers nursed their own seedlings and purchased others, respectively. The results show that significant (p≥ 0.026) relationship between time of planting and percentage damage cause by the disease. In addition, correlation analysis was done showing a strong positive (r = 0.97) relationship between time of transplanting onions and disease incidence. In conclusion farmers demonstrate awareness of symptoms and spread of diseases, showing a significant gap in knowledge regarding effective control and prevention measures. This research further recommends the use of best agronomic practices for control measure such as soil health management, seedling management, water management and integrated pest management practices for the control of onion bulb rot disease.
Screening and evaluation of sorghum germplasm for salinity tolerance using physiological indices in hydroponic culture
Salinity is a major abiotic stress limiting crop productivity globally, particularly in coastal and deltaic regions prone to saltwater intrusion. This study aimed to screen and evaluate eighteen Sorghum bicolor L. germplasm for salinity tolerance using physiological and biochemical indices under controlled hydroponic conditions. The experiment was conducted in a completely randomized design with two salinity treatments (0 and 12 dS m-¹), replicated thrice, in the physiology laboratory of Bangladesh Agricultural University. Morphological (shoot/root length, leaf number), physiological (SPAD value, Fv/Fm, proline content), and biochemical traits (Na+, K+, and K+/Na+ ratio) were assessed to quantify salinity responses. Significant genotypic differences (p ≤ 0.001) were found in key indices: shoot length stress tolerance index ranged from 74.16% (BD-738) to 92.10% (BD-713), while root-shoot ratio reached a maximum of 135.34 in Safal 999. The highest K+/Na+ ratio was observed in sorghum BD-731 (10.44), whereas sorghum BD-701 showed the lowest (2.16), indicating high susceptibility. Proline accumulation increased under stress, notably in sorghum BD-713 and Hybrid Sorgo, suggesting osmotic adjustment mechanisms. Based on visual SES scoring, five genotypes (Sorghum BD-703, Sorghum BD-706, sorghum BD-713, sorghum BD-730, sorghum BD-737) were classified as tolerant, and seven as moderately tolerant. Hydroponic screening coupled with physiological indices provided a robust and reproducible method to identify salinity-tolerant sorghum lines. These findings highlight sorghum BD-703, Sorghum BD-713, Sorghum BD-706, and Hybrid Sorgo as promising candidates for further field evaluation in salt-affected environments.
Technical efficiency of tomato production under plastic tunnel technology and their determinants in Kathmandu, Nepal: A stochastic frontier approach
This study aimed to assess the technical efficiency of tomato production under plastic tunnels, and factors influencing it in Kathmandu district. From Chandragiri, Tarakeshwar and Kirtipur Municipalities, 150 randomly selected tomato farmers using plastic tunnel were surveyed using a pre-tested semi-structured questionnaire. Data were analyzed using Excel, IBM SPSS, and STATA. Technical efficiency was estimated using a stochastic frontier model, and its determinants were identified using a Tobit regression model. The average technical efficiency was 79.7%, ranging from 59.0% to 92.2%, indicating a 20.3% potential for improvement. Tomato cultivated area, labor, and seed quantity were found to significantly increase productivity under plastic tunnels, with a 1% increase in each leading to a production rise of 0.431%, 0.394%, and 0.121%, respectively (p<0.01). In contrast, a 1% increase in chemical fertilizer use slightly reduced output by 0.011% (p<0.01), highlighting the importance of balanced input use. The Tobit regression model showed that education, group membership, training, credit access, use of recommended varieties, and mulching practices positively influenced technical efficiency and a unit increase in any of these factors favored tomato yield by 0.001%, 0.046%, 0.025%, 0.035%, 0.018%, and 0.023%, respectively. The study suggests that improving access to resources, technology adoption, and institutional support can enhance efficiency in plastic tunnel tomato farming. These findings provide insights for policymakers and stakeholders aiming to strengthen off-season tomato production in Nepal.
Effects of different botanicals for substrate sterilization in oyster (Pleurotus ostreatus) mushroom production
Effective sterilization of substrate is a crucial step for successful oyster mushroom production, yet the use of eco-friendly options to energy-intensive and chemical sterilization methods remains limited in Nepal. Therefore, this experiment was carried out from November 2024 to February 2025 at Prithu Technical College, Deukhuri, Dang, Nepal to evaluate the effectiveness of a few selected plant extracts as sterilizing agents in Pleurotus ostreatus production. This research aimed to identify a suitable plant-based alternative that could improve yield parameters. Six treatments: Neem (Azadirachta indica), Lantana (Lantana camara), Papaya (Carica papaya), Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum), and Turmeric (Curcuma longa) at 5% concentration were evaluated in a completely randomized design (CRD) with three replications. Data were recorded up to the third flush for phenological, growth, and yield parameters. The result showed significant variation among the assigned treatments. Neem-treated substrate performed best, exhibiting the shortest cropping duration (70 days), the shortest time for pinhead formation (29 days) and fruiting body formation (37 days), the highest total yield (593 g per bag), and the highest biological efficiency (118.6%). While fenugreek and turmeric treatments delayed developmental processes and resulted in decreased yield. There were no significant differences in the number of fruiting bodies and leaves per fruiting body among the treatments. Overall, Neem extract was the most effective botanical for substrate sterilization, offering a sustainable, eco-friendly alternative to conventional methods, improving yield and growth efficiency in oyster mushroom production.
Homegardens of Guinean Savannah Highlands of Adamawa in Vina, Cameroon: Woody floristic diversity and climate change mitigation potential
Homegardens stock carbon is crucial for climate mitigation. The aim of this study was to evaluate woody floristic diversity and climate change mitigation potential of homegardens in the Guinean Savannah highlands of Adamawa in Vina, Cameroon. For this, a household survey was conducted among 150 farmers in six villages. Botanical inventories were carried out in each village and the collected data was analysed in various ways. The results showed that the farmers populations have good understanding of climate change and have developed local mitigation strategies. In the homegardens of Vina, 1299 individuals were recorded, belonging to 39 species, 28 genera and 20 families. Tello locality had a greater number of individuals, species, genera and families than the other localities, with 309, 25, 22 and 19, respectively. The Shannon index of different locality was 1.92 in Malang and 2.42 in Bakari-bata. The homegardens in the Bakari-bata locality stored more carbon (175.38±136.96 tC/ha) and CO2 equivalent (643.67±502.66tCO2/ha) than other localities. According the age of homegardens, mature homegardens (between 30 and 40 years old) store a significant amount of carbon (175.16±93.49 tC/ha) and consequently CO2 equivalent (642.84±343.12 tCO2/ha). Thus, the results indicated the effectiveness of homegardens in mitigating climate change and contributed to the development of a database on REDD+ mechanisms in Adamawa region of Cameroon.
Human-wolf conflicts in the buffer zone of Sagarmatha National Park: Patterns of livestock predation, community perceptions and mitigation strategies
In the buffer zone of Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal, this study assessed the status of human–wolf conflict by documenting livestock depredation patterns, exploring community perceptions, and reviewing locally applied mitigation measures. Information was gathered through reconnaissance and key-informant consultations, field visits to reported conflict locations (supported by signs such as tracks, scat, and carcass remains), and household interviews using open-ended questionnaires with 132 respondents from Ward 4 and Ward 5 (66 per ward). Reported conflict was widespread: 75% of respondents perceived an increasing trend in wolf population over the last five years, and 41.7% described wolf attacks as frequent. Annual livestock depredation records from 2019 to 2025 indicated that wolves were the principal predator, accounting for 1,277 incidents (approximately 87.5% of all recorded depredations). The highest number of cases occurred in 2024/25 (339), while the lowest number was recorded in 2020/21 (102). Among respondents who identified seasonal patterns (n = 77), attacks were reported most frequently during the summer (June–August; 47%) and occurred primarily in the evening (42%) and at night (35%). Perceptions were predominantly negative, driven by livestock losses (68.2%) and concerns for human safety (27.3%). Fencing, sensor lights, and fox lights were used by some households, but many reported no preventive measures and generally viewed existing options as ineffective. Education and direct encounters with wolves were significantly associated with perceptions and support for wolf conservation. Targeted, community-led prevention and risk-communication efforts aligned with local depredation patterns could reduce losses while maintaining support for wolf conservation.
Effect of different casing materials on performance of white button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) under controlled conditions in Banke district, Nepal
Casing plays a crucial role in the cultivation of white button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus), as it initiates fructification, supports developing sporophores, and acts as a moisture reservoir essential for optimal yield and quality. The present study was conducted to evaluate suitable casing materials for enhanced production of white button mushroom under controlled conditions in Baijanath Rural Municipality, Banke district, Nepal. The experiment was laid out in a completely randomized design with six treatments and four replications under farmers’ field conditions. The treatments comprised six casing formulations: 100% farmyard manure (FYM), 100% coco-peat, 50% coco-peat + 50% FYM (2 years old), 40% coco-peat + 50% FYM (2 years old) + 10% gypsum, 40% coco-peat + 50% garden soil + 10% gypsum, and 100% garden soil. Growth and yield parameters of A. bisporus were recorded and analyzed using R-Studio. Results revealed that casing materials significantly (p ≤ 0.05) influenced days to pin-head formation, days to fruiting, pileus diameter, total yield (three flushes), and biological efficiency, whereas stipe length and stipe diameter were not significantly influenced. Early pin-head formation and fruiting of A. bisporus were observed in 100% FYM, which was statistically at par with 100% coco-peat. The highest pileus diameter, total yield, and biological efficiency were obtained with 100% FYM, followed by 100% garden soil. Based on the findings, 100% FYM is recommended as an effective casing material for maximizing yield and biological efficiency of A. bisporus. However, other casing formulations i.e. 100% garden soil and 100% Coco-peat could also be considered depending on local availability and soil variability.
Host preference dynamics of rice weevil (Sitophilus oryzae L.) in stored cereals
The study aimed to evaluate the host preference of rice weevil (Sitophilus oryzae L.) among six different cereals viz., rice, maize, wheat, barley, sorghum, and oats and assess their resistance to infestation. The experiment was conducted at the Entomology laboratory of Rampur Campus, Chitwan, from May to August 2025 under both free-choice and no-choice conditions using completely randomized design (CRD) with four replications. Each treatment consists of one hundred grains with fifteen pairs of newly emerged rice weevils from the stock culture, introduced under no-choice conditions and fifty pairs per replication under free-choice conditions. The assessed parameters were grain damage percentage, weight loss percentage, and germination percentage before and after the treatment. Under free-choice conditions, wheat recorded the highest grain damage (28.25%) and weight loss (20.01%), whereas oats showed the lowest damage (3.25%) and weight loss (1.52%); greatest reduction in germination was also in wheat (20%) and the smallest in oats (3%). Under no-choice conditions, wheat again had the highest grain damage (14.50%) and weight loss (17.44%), both significantly greater at the 0.1% level, while oats had the lowest damage (4.75%) and weight loss (2.21%); correspondingly, the highest reduction in germination occurred in wheat (18%) and the lowest in oats (3%). This study suggests that wheat is a highly preferred host, while oats exhibit higher resistance against rice weevils. It also suggests that integrating resistant grains and targeted pest management strategies can reduce post-harvest loss.
Impact of agricultural subsidy on maize farming in Rukum-west of Nepal
This study was conducted to access the status, impact, and factors affecting access of agricultural subsidies among maize farmers in Rukum-west of Nepal. The data was collected from 92 farmers; 46 subsidy receivers and 46 subsidy non-receivers using purposive multi-stage sampling technique. The major determinants of subsidy access identified through logit regression model were found to be farm registration, training, and co-operative membership. This study revealed positive impact of subsidy in adoption of agricultural technologies like certified seeds and machinery and increase in maize cultivation area. Total cost of cultivation was found to be $163.58 (NRs 23773) for subsidy receivers and $179.27 (NRs 26054) for subsidy receivers significant at 1% with p- value 0.0004. Agricultural subsidy for maize farming was effective in reduction of cost of land preparation, sowing, and shelling was found significant with p- value 0.03, 0.04 and 0.003, respectively. Maize productivity and benefit-cost ration for subsidy receivers was found to be 2.64 t/ha and 1.49, respectively, which was higher compared to non-receivers found to be 2.41 t/ha and 1.21, respectively. Farmers ranked unfair distribution with index 0.74 as the major weakness in current subsidy model. This study suggests input subsidies as an important policy medium to increase maize yield and economic return, thereby contributing towards growing demand for food and feed. However, concerned policy makers should develop strategic transparent framework for subsidy distribution targeting youths and marginalized farmers to ensure long-term food security in the country.
Evaluation of different growing media on the growth and development of chilli (Capsicum annuum L.) seedlings in the mid-hill region of Nepal
The experiment evaluating different growing media on the growth and development of chilli (Capsicum annuum L.) seedlings in the mid-hill region of Nepal was conducted under polyhouse conditions using a Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with six treatments and four replications in Tehrathum district. The treatments included various combinations of organic and inert components, i.e. soil, FYM, cocopeat, vermicompost, poultry manure, vermiculite, and perlite in different ratios. Parameters recorded included germination percentage, plant height, stem diameter, number of leaves, root length, secondary root number, fresh weight, and dry weight at different growth stages. Results revealed significant differences among treatments for all parameters except for germination. All treatments demonstrated high and comparable germination rates, ranging from 92.66% to 96.66% with the highest germination recorded in T2 (cocopeat + soil, 4:1) at 96.66% and the lowest in T4 (vermicompost + poultry manure + soil, 1:1:2) at 92.66%. The combination of vermicompost + poultry manure + soil (1:2:1) i.e. T4 produced the most vigorous seedlings, with maximum seedling height (18.65 cm), leaf numbers (9.46), stem diameter (0.38 cm), fresh weight (2.47 gm), dry weight (0.27 gm), root length (86.12 cm) and secondary root numbers (13.87). Seedlings grown in T2 (Soil + cocopeat, 1:4) exhibited the poorest performance across all parameters, with significant differences at the 5% level of significance. The findings suggest that nutrient-rich organic growing media with proper aeration and moisture-holding capacity are optimal for nursery production of chilli in the mid-hill region of Nepal.
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Farmers' perceptions and responses to wildlife crop damage: A case study from Palpa district, Nepal
Wildlife crop damage has been a serious problem for rural farming communities globally, including Nepal. To understand the perception of farmers of wildlife interventions, a survey was conducted in Bagnaskali Rural Municipality, Palpa district, Nepal, using a structured questionnaire. The responses were collected from 73 randomly sampled individuals (farmers). The findings revealed that rice, maize, and vegetables were the major crops cultivated in the region. The most followed farming system was rice-wheat-maize, with 70%, and maize-rapeseed-wheat with 16%. The post-sowing period was identified as the peak time for wildlife damage by the majority, i.e. 63 respondents. Monkeys, rabbits, and deer were the primary animals causing major damage to the crops. The random attack from these animals was found to be the most dominant issue for farmers. A majority (52%) of the respondents reported losses ranging from 10% to 30% due to the intervention of these wild animals. Furthermore, only 15% mentioned that the trend of wildlife damage in crops over the last 5 years has decreased, while 85% fully agreed that the damage is increasing daily. Regarding preventive measures, it was found that 31.5% used scarecrows, 16.4% used noise/light methods, and 32.9% used no significant mitigation strategy. These strategies were perceived to be ineffective by 70% of the farmers, while 27% found them effective, and 3% were unsure. The findings suggested the urgent need for government intervention to address this issue in Palpa district of Nepal.
Evaluation of Nano urea on growth and yield parameters of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) in Chitwan, Nepal
Granular urea has low nitrogen use efficiency and poses environmental risks. As a response, Nano urea is emerging as an innovative substitute. A field experiment conducted at Chitwan, Nepal to explored the effect of Nano urea on growth and yield parameters of cowpea, and its potential to substitute granular urea. The experiment was laid out in Randomized Block Design, with eight treatments and three replications: control, 100% recommended dose of nitrogen (RDN) through granular urea, single and double spray of Nano urea at 0.2% and 0.4%, and combination of 50% of RDN with 0.2% and 0.4% Nano urea. Various growth and yield parameters such as plant height, canopy diameter, leaf area index, number of primary branches, pod yield, pod length, pod diameter, pod per plant were recorded, which were found significantly affected by the treatments. Results revealed that 50% RDN granular urea + NU (0.2%) recorded the highest canopy diameter (97.43 cm), primary branches (5.92) leaf area index (0.38), pod yield (12.59), and pods per plant (30.6), with single spray of 0.2% of Nano urea at flowering stage being the most effective. Therefore, the study demonstrated that Nano urea has potential to substitute 50% of conventional granular urea, contributing to sustainable cowpea production.
Gender division of labour in traditional biomass energy systems in rural Nepal
Traditional biomass remains a dominant household energy source in many low- and middle-income countries, yet its gendered labour implications remain insufficiently examined at local scales. This study investigates the gendered division of labour and associated health burdens in firewood-dependent households in Krishnapur Municipality, Kanchanpur district, Nepal. A mixed-methods cross-sectional design was applied combining household surveys (n = 70), focus group discussions, and key informant interviews with forest user groups and ward officials. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, correlation tests and cross-tabulations, while qualitative data provided contextual explanations of labour norms and decision-making. Results revealed a persistent gender asymmetry in firewood-related tasks: women accounted for 65.7% of collection, 70% of arranging, and 58.6% of cooking activities, whereas men predominated in wood slicing (65.7%) and mechanized transportation. Overall, women contributed 43.1% to total workload compared to 21.7% for men and 35.1% jointly. More than half (54.3%) reported health problems linked to carrying and burning firewood, and distance to collection sites was strongly correlated with health complaints (r = 0.693, p < 0.01). Despite high reliance on firewood, 83% of households expressed willingness to shift to cleaner fuels, constrained primarily by economic limitations and forest access. The study contributes empirical evidence to gender-energy scholarship by quantifying task-specific labour burdens and linking them to health risks and time poverty. Findings highlight the need for gender-responsive clean cooking policies, improved financing mechanisms, and targeted community forestry interventions to reduce women’s workload and accelerate equitable energy transitions.
Value chain analysis of Taxus (Yew) species and its affecting factors in Makwanpur district, Nepal
Taxus, commonly known as Yew, is an ecologically vulnerable but economically valuable medicinal tree widely harvested in Nepal for the production of 10-deacetylbaccatin III (10-DAB III), a key precursor of the anti-cancer drug paclitaxel. Despite its growing commercial importance, systematic assessments of the Taxus value chain remain limited. This study analyzes the structure, factor dynamics, governance systems, and economic performance of the Taxus value chain in Makwanpur District of Nepal. Using a mixed-method approach, we mapped actor roles, examined costs and margins, and evaluated determinants of value-chain performance. Results showed a strongly hierarchical, buyer-driven chain in which collectors perform the most labor-intensive tasks yet capture less than 5% of final value. Local and district traders mediate quality control, aggregation, and pricing, while processing industries retain the highest value share through technologically intensive extraction of 10-DAB III. Harvesting practices, although largely selective, exhibit inconsistent adherence to sustainable pruning guidelines, posing ecological risks to a slow-growing species with poor natural regeneration. Regression analysis revealed that value chain performance is significantly influenced by timely raw-material availability, farmers’ socio-economic conditions, trader education, processing quality, and policy clarity, whereas pre-processing treatment at the household level showed no significant effect. Overall, the study highlights structural inequities, ecological vulnerabilities, and governance bottlenecks within the Taxus value chain. Strengthening Community Forest User Group (CFUG) oversight, improving post-harvest handling, enhancing market transparency, and streamlining regulatory procedures are critical for advancing sustainable management while improving livelihood benefits for forest-dependent communities.
Preparation of muffin incorporated with sweet potato paste and its quality evaluation
This study examines the development of low-gluten sweet potato muffins, focusing on process optimization, sensory evaluation, and proximate composition analysis. Raw materials were selected based on freshness, quality and processed through sorting, grading, boiling, mashing, baking, and cooling steps. Five formulations (A- 0%, B-30%, C-40%, D-50% and E-60% of sweet potato paste) were prepared based on survey data, from which the best formulated one was selected through 9-point hedonic scale. The study examined how varying levels of steam-cooked sweet potato paste influenced the muffins’ chemical and nutritional properties. Sample D was identified as the best formulation based on sensory tests, showing superior qualities in color, scent, taste, texture, and overall acceptability. The moisture, protein, fat, ash, crude fiber and carbohydrate content of best formulated product was 29.7, 5.38, 17.23, 1.62, 2.85 and 43.19%, respectively. Also, beta carotene content and calcium content were 4.49 mg/100 g and 11.64 mg/100 g, respectively. The nutritional profile and sensory quality of the low-gluten muffins were significantly (p<0.05) improved by adding 50% sweet potato paste, while maintaining a reasonable price. According to the study, sweet potatoes can be used as a functional ingredient to create nutrient-rich baked goods that will appeal to consumers and have potential commercial value.
Comparing Sentinel-2 vegetation indices for optimal estimation of aboveground carbon stock in a tropical community forest of Nepal
Accurate monitoring of forest carbon stocks is essential for effective climate change mitigation. This study aimed to identify the optimal Sentinel-2 vegetation index (VI) for estimating aboveground carbon (AGC) stock in the Raktamala Namuna Community Forest, Nepal. Field data from 53 circular plots (500 m² each) were used to compute AGC based on tree-level dendrometric measurements and species-specific wood density. Ten VIs, including traditional (e.g., NDVI, EVI) and red-edge-based indices (NDVIre1–NDVIre4), were derived from a cloud-free Sentinel-2 Level-2A image (April 7, 2023). Five regression models (linear, logarithmic, quadratic, power, and exponential) were tested for each VI–AGC relationship. The average AGC was 63.88 t·ha-¹. The red-edge index NDVIre1 (using Band 5, 705 nm), modelled with a logarithmic function, yielded the highest predictive accuracy (R² = 0.7205, r = 0.848, p < 0.001), outperforming traditional indices like NDVI (R² = 0.609). This study demonstrates the superior sensitivity of Sentinel-2’s red-edge band (705 nm) to canopy structure in dense tropical forests. The study concluded that the NDVIre1 logarithmic model provides a novel, cost effective tool for operational and scalable carbon monitoring in community-managed forests, directly supporting REDD+ implementation and localized forest management.
Evaluation of growth and yield performance of broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica L.) under conventional urea, nano urea and azotobacter biofertilizer
Conventional urea, while being the predominant nitrogen source in Nepalese agriculture, presents significant challenges including import dependency, low nitrogen use efficiency, and environmental pollution. A field experiment was conducted in Tulsipur, Dang, during 2024-25 season to evaluate Nano urea and Azotobacter biofertilizer as potential partial or complete substitutes for conventional urea in broccoli cultivation. The study employed a randomized complete block design with three replications and nine treatments, including reduced (75%, 50%) doses of recommended conventional urea supplemented with Nano urea and Azotobacter, using full conventional urea (N 100% PK full) as control. The treatment with 75% conventional urea and both supplements produced a significantly (p<0.05/0.01) superior plant height (56.31 cm) and the largest canopy diameter (57.97 cm) at harvest, while 50% conventional urea with Nano urea resulted in longest leaves (38.30 cm) and broadest leaves (19.82 cm) of broccoli at harvest. The combination of 50% conventional urea with Azotobacter achieved the highest economic yield (26.96 t/ha), while 75% conventional urea with both supplements yielded maximum biological production (67.2 t/ha) of broccoli. Correlation analysis revealed a strong positive correlation (r = 0.947) between head diameter and economic yield which was further quantified by a linear regression model (y = -18.44 + 2.87x, R² = 0.896), confirming head diameter as a key predictor for yield of broccoli. Hence, the study concludes that integrating Nano urea or Azotobacter can reduce conventional urea use by 25-50% without compromising yield, offering a sustainable strategy that addresses both import dependency and environmental concerns.
A review on phytochemistry, traditional uses, and pharmacological potential of Morinda citrifolia (Noni)
For centuries, the noni plant (Morinda citrifolia) has been a cornerstone of traditional medicine across Southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands, used to treat a vast array of ailments. Today, this tropical fruit has captured global attention, moving from ancient remedies to modern health food stores. This review paper critically evaluates the science behind the hype, exploring noni's rich phytochemical makeup and its promising pharmacological potential. The paper compiles evidence showing that nearly 200 beneficial compounds including anthraquinones, flavonoid, and iridoids have been identified in different parts of the noni plant. These compounds contribute to a broad spectrum of biological activities. Research suggest that noni and its extracts possess anticancer (significant inhibition of breast, lung and colon cancer), anti-microbial (inhibition of Candida albicans and Staphylococcus aureus), analgesic (162-212% increased pain tolerance in rodents), anti-inflammatory, cardio-protective, and blood-sugar-lowering (hypoglycemic) properties. While the historical use and a growing body of preclinical studies are compelling, the authors conclude that high quality clinical trials are limited. Such research is crucial to confirm its effectiveness, establish proper dosage, and ensure long-term safety. This review concludes that, with the unique combination of historical value, nutritional richness, and diverse therapeutic potential, noni stands as an invaluable resource for the future of nutraceuticals and modern medicine while well designed human trials must establish clinical efficacy, optimal dosage, and sustained safety in humans.
Organo-mineral nitrogen fertilizer enhances growth, nitrogen use efficiency and protein content in red amaranth
Red amaranth is a popular vegetable in Bangladesh because of its high nutritional value and pleasant flavor. Efficient nitrogen (N) management is vital for sustainable crop production, but conventional urea fertilizers often cause significant N losses. In recent years, organo-mineral fertilizers (OMFs) have gained popularity for improving crop yield and soil fertility. This study examined the effect of brown Coal Urea (BCU) as an organo-mineral N fertilizer, on growth, fresh biomass yield, N use efficiency (NUE), and protein content of red amaranth (Amaranthus tricolor L.). A pot experiment, conducted under a completely randomized design, assessed five N application rates (0, 50, 75, 100, 150 kg N ha-¹) delivered through urea, DAP, BCU applied as topdressing, and BCU applied as a basal treatment. The results showed that BCU treatment significantly (p<0.05) improved all parameters compared to urea. The highest plant height and fresh biomass yield were found with BCU basal application at 150 kg N ha-1, while the greatest NUE (77.29%) and FNUE (56.84%) were achieved at 50 kg N ha-1. The improved performance was attributed to slow-release and humic-rich nature of BCU, which enhances N retention and uptake efficiency. Overall, BCU effectively increased yield and N efficiency in red amaranth, highlighting its potential as a sustainable alternative to conventional fertilizers.
Effectiveness of salt licking sites for wild animals in Bardia National Park, Nepal
Salt licks are naturally occurring spots vital to numerous wildlife species worldwide. This study aimed to examine the use of natural salt licks by wild animals inside Bardia National Park (BNP), Nepal. Five camera traps were installed at five selected salt licks for a period of 18 days. A total 6 families and 10 species, were recorded at the salt lick sites were recorded during the investigation. The sites, Baghaura A and Baghaura C emerged as the most diverse salt licks in terms of species richness. The Shannon-Weiner diversity index was highest at Baghaura C, while the species evenness index was also highest there and lowest at Patthar Bandha South. The Simpson diversity index was highest in Patthar Bandha South and lowest at Baghaura B. Spotted deer, followed by rhino, were the most frequent visitors with the highest Capture Frequency (CF) and Relative Abundance Index (RAI). Carnivores and omnivores were least abundant. Temporal activity pattern was varied with species and habitat, with maximum activity during the day. The soil analysis also showed the highest pH and exchangeable sodium at Patthar Bandha South and the lowest at Baghaura A. Among the five identified threats, Habitat destruction and human interference were identified as the most severe threats. Disease transmission and poisoning ranked high and medium threats, respectively. Therefore, this study provides science-based evidence for the protection of salt lick sites for effective wildlife management in Bardia National Park, Nepal.
A review on determinants and optimization strategies in prime editing in cereal and non-cereal crops
Prime editing provides precise base changes, minute insertions (Small insertions ≤3 bp showed efficiencies of 2–8%) or deletions, and more defined substitutions without cutting both DNA strands or finding a donor. This is clearly better for safety and control. Plants have quickly taken on, but not in identical way. Changing editor backbones, reshaping pegRNAs, and evaluating out different delivery methods have often made things more efficient, but these improvements don't always work for all species or tissues. Simple design choices like PBS length, RTT layout, adding a 3′ structural tail, or employing paired pegRNAs can have greater implications on results than the editor itself. Editing efficiencies in rice protoplasts ranged from 0.26% to 2.2% for different targets. Rice showed that it was possible, as subsequent initiatives certain of which turned out far more successful than others—propelled into wheat, several dicots, and even some trees. While improvements in editor engineering, more advanced promoters, and computational design all got better, functionality still varies from locus to locus and genotype to genotype. In the real world, the transformation techniques and the local target context often define the outcome. This review summarizes collectively the greatest developments about plant prime editing, focusing on how it can be deployed for specific crops, how procedures can be strengthened, and design guidelines. The degree to which prime editing has been utilized in breeding and functional genomics will depend on further study on pegRNA stabilization, backbone variations, and various methods of delivering it.
Woody plant diversity and carbon sequestration in fruit agroforestry systems in the Guinean high savannah zone of Adamawa, Cameroon
Fruit agroforestry systems are important not only for improving human living conditions but also for natural resource management. The objective of this study was to assess the woody plant diversity and carbon stocks of fruit agroforestry systems in the Adamawa region. The methodological approach was based on floristic inventories. For this, plots measuring 50 metres long by 20 metres wide were explored. A total of 250 plots were set up, at a rate of 50 plots per division. Dendrometric parameters such as diameter at breast height, crown diameter, and tree height were measured. Carbon stocks were estimated using allometric equations. The study found that a total of 2986 individuals, grouped into 17 species, 14 genera, and 11 families, were recorded. The density of fruit trees varies from 60.8 stems/ha in the Faro-et-Deo division to 227 stems/ha in the Vina division. Fruit agrosystems show low diversity overall, but with higher diversity in Mayo-Banyo (H’ = 0.81 bits). M. indica (IVIE=163.5%), T. cacao (IVIE=49.61%) and P. americana (IVIE=48.71%) are the most important species. The most important families are Anacardiaceae (FIVI=160.88%), Rutaceae (FIVI=68.43%) and Lauraceae (FIVI=48.43%). The vegetation stands are distributed in an L-shape and bell-shaped pattern. The carbon sequestration potential is 209.13±114.35 tCO2eq/ha and the economic value is 2075043.42 CFA francs. Thus, fruit agrosystems are not very diverse but contribute to carbon storage in the fight against climate change. It would be necessary to encourage the establishment of fruit agrosystems to resolve environmental problems in Cameroon.
Determinants and perceptions of women’s participation in community forest management: Evidence from Western Nepal
Community forestry in Nepal has significantly contributed to forest restoration, livelihood enhancement, and local governance since its initiation in the late 1970s. Despite policy mandates for gender inclusion, women’s effective participation in community forest management remains limited. This study examined the demographic and socio-economic determinants of women’s participation and their perceptions of community forest management in Manakamana Community Forest of Western Nepal. Data were collected from 82 randomly selected women community forest users using household surveys, supplemented by key informant interviews and focus group discussions. Binary logistic regression was employed to identify predictors of participation, while perceptions were assessed using a Likert scale. Results revealed that out of 10 independent predictors studied age, years of schooling, executive committee membership, and proximity to the Community Forest Office were significant predictors of participation, explaining 53.4% of the variance. Education had the strongest effect, with the probability of participation increasing from less than 5% among uneducated women to more than 90% among those with secondary education or higher. Similarly, old-aged women and women from households with executive committee representation were nearly twice as likely to participate compared to others, while distance to the community forest office posed a strong spatial barrier. Perception analysis showed that women were highly involved in labor-intensive tasks such as plantation programs and forest product collection but were excluded from strategic roles including operational plan preparation, fund mobilization, and monitoring. The study highlights a persistent gap between women’s representation and actual influence in community forestry governance.
Effect of calcium chloride and gibberellic acid as post-harvest treatments on quality and shelf life of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L. Var. Srijana) in Chitwan, Nepal
The research entitled, effect of calcium chloride and gibberellic acid as post-harvest treatments on quality and shelf life of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) var. Srijana in Chitwan, Nepal, was conducted to find out the best concentration of calcium chloride (CaCl2) and Gibberellic acid (GA3) for better quality and shelf life of tomato under ambient room conditions (28±5°C, 64% RH). The experiment was laid out in a completely randomized design, which comprised six treatments: control (water), CaCl2 @2%, CaCl2 @4%, CaCl2 @6%, CaCl2 @8%, GA3 @1.5% GA3 @3% each replicated three times. Different postharvest parameters were assessed over a 12-day storage period. Results demonstrated that CaCl2 @4%, CaCl2 @6%, GA3 @1.5%, and GA3 @3% were found to be more effective in maintaining the quality and longer shelf life of tomatoes. On the 12th day of storage, the lowest decay loss was observed with CaCl2 @6% (0), GA3 @3% (0), followed by CaCl2 @4% (6.67%) and GA3 @1.5% (6.67%). The minimum TSS was observed in CaCl2 @4% (3.33˚Brix). Treatments GA3 @1.5% (1.12 kg/cm²), GA3 @3% (1.11 kg/cm²), CaCl2 @4% (1.08 kg/cm²) CaCl2 @6% (0.94 kg/cm²) effectively maintained the firmness of tomatoes fruits. Physiological loss in weight was minimum in CaCl2 @6% (4.50%) which was at par with CaCl2 @4%, GA3 @1.5%, GA3 @3%. Thus, it can be concluded that CaCl2 @4%, CaCl2 @6%, GA3 @1.5%, and GA3 @3% are effective in maintaining post-harvest quality and prolonging the shelf life of tomato. In addition to this, enhance marketability without reliance on cold storage.
Economics of production and marketing of coffee in Bethanchowk Rural Municipality, Kavre, Nepal
This study was conducted to assess the profitability of coffee production and marketing, find its constraints, and identify major marketing channels of coffee in Bethanchowk rural municipality in Kavre district, Nepal. Random and snowball techniques were used for sampling. For data analysis, MS Excel and IBM SPSS 26 were used. A total of 72 coffee farmers, 2 collectors, 6 pulpers, and 2 processors were surveyed from the study area, along with conducting FGD and KII. Coffee was grown in 0.0514 hectares (1.01 ropani; 1 hectare = 19.66 ropani) of land on average, where the farmers’ overall landholding was 0.7214 hectares (14.18 ropani). The total variable cost per hectare was NPR 235783.8 (US$ 1661.22), and the total fixed cost per hectare was NPR 30038.37 (US$ 212.30). The gross margin per hectare was found to be NPR 332159.5 (US$ 2340.24). B:C ratio was calculated to be 2.14 at a 12% discount rate. The returns to scale of coffee production was 1.563, which showed increasing returns to scale in the study area. The most significant factors that affected coffee farming were the area under coffee cultivation, the number of productive plants, and labor. Farmers faced challenges due to frequent infestation from diseases and pests and having inadequate water supply access in the study area. But if the concerned authorities address those problems, coffee farming can be a great source of income, especially for rural farmers.
Fusarium wilt of banana (Tropical Race 4) in Nepal: Distribution, epidemiology, and integrated management strategies
Banana (Musa spp.) is a key smallholder crop in Nepal, ranking third in production (≈282,000 t yr-¹) and fifth in area (≈19,000 ha), yet it faces a growing threat from Fusarium wilt (Panama disease) caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense Tropical Race 4 (TR4). Unlike earlier epidemics that devastated ‘Gros Michel’ (Race 1), TR4 infects Cavendish and many cooking cultivars, persists in soil for over 30 years, and spreads through contaminated planting material, soil, water, and tools. This review aims to synthesize global and regional evidence on TR4’s etiology, history, distribution, symptoms, and epidemiology, and to evaluate management options relevant to Nepal’s smallholder systems following the country’s first detections in 2023 (e.g., Kailali, Tikapur). Information was compiled systematically from peer-reviewed literature (Elsevier, Springer, Wiley), institutional reports (FAO, IPPC, NPPO), and verified bulletins (2000–2024). The synthesis indicates that curative control is unreliable, whereas integrated exclusion and containment strategies—certified disease-free planting material, field sanitation, and movement restrictions—can reduce disease incidence by 60–80%. Biological control, nutrient management, and tolerant cultivars show potential as supportive, not substitutive, measures. Therefore, establishing national diagnostic and surveillance capacity, strengthening on-farm biosecurity and clean-seed systems, and aligning regional quarantine and seed-certification policies should be needed on urgent priorities in Nepal. This study provides the first comprehensive synthesis of TR4’s threat to Nepal, offering an evidence-based roadmap for safeguarding banana livelihoods and sustaining the national value chain.
Impact of various Rhizobium application methods on production and nodule formation in cowpea
The study aimed to determine the effect of various Rhizobium inoculation methods on the yield, growth, and reproductive characteristics of two cowpea varieties under field conditions in the tropical region of Tikapur, Kailali. With four replications, the study was carried out in a two-factorial Randomized Complete Block Design from April to August of 2024. Four different Rhizobium inoculation methods were tested on two cowpea varieties, Aakash and Prakash: T1 (Control), T2 (seed inoculation), T3 (seed + soil inoculation), and T4 (soil inoculation). The majority of parameters were significantly influenced by the variety, inoculation methods and their interaction. While Aakash showed better physiological growth, the Prakash variety performed better in reproductive attributes and had a greater grain yield (1.39 t/ha). With the highest plant height (92.74 cm), number of leaves (52.75), branches (5.54), effective nodules (84.69), pods per plant (21.29), seeds per pod (12.10), thousand-grain weight (138.95 g), and grain yield (1.98 t/ha), T3 (seed + soil inoculation) regularly outperformed the other treatments. Correlation analysis revealed a significant positive relationship between effective nodulation and yield-related traits. These results indicate that integrated Rhizobium treatment may greatly increase cowpea productivity, especially by combining both seed and soil inoculation. The study offers a cost-effective, promising method for enhancing the performance of legumes, which is particularly advantageous for smallholder farmers. To confirm the scalability and consistency of these findings, the study suggests more extensive long-term research in other agro-ecological zones.
Response of variety and sulphur on yield attributes and yield of boro rice in Haor area of Bangladesh
The haor region of Bangladesh offers substantial scope to enhance boro rice productivity through improved soil nutrient management and adoption of high-yielding varieties. This study aimed to evaluate the interactive effects of rice variety and sulphur application on growth and yield performance under haor conditions. A field experiment was conducted at Dhoronti Haor, Nasirnagar, Brahmanbaria district of Bangladesh during January–April 2023 using four varieties—BRRI dhan28, BRRI dhan29, BRRI dhan89, and Hira-2 (Hybrid)—and five sulphur levels (0, 55, 110, 165, and 220 kg S ha-¹) with recommended fertilizer doses. The experiment followed a split-plot design with three replications, assigning varieties to main plots and sulphur levels to subplots. Results revealed significant (p < 0.05) main and interaction effects of variety and sulphur on most growth and yield traits. The hybrid Hira-2 produced the highest filled grains panicle-¹ (323.0), panicle length (22.0 cm), thousand-grain weight (28.79 g), and grain yield (9.24 t ha-¹), whereas BRRI dhan28 showed the lowest performance. Sulphur application significantly improved yield attributes, with the optimum yield (7.42 t ha-¹) obtained at 165 kg S ha-¹, beyond which no further increase was observed. Variety × Sulphur interaction indicated that Hira-2 and BRRI dhan89 were most responsive to moderate sulphur levels, while BRRI dhan28 showed limited response. The integration of hybrid rice variety Hira-2 with an optimum sulphur rate of 165 kg S ha-¹ can substantially enhance grain yield and resource-use efficiency, offering a sustainable intensification strategy for the haor agroecosystem.
Ancient natural farming: Way forward to sustainability in modern agricultural practices
The modern agricultural system is directly associated to the food security to provide food materials to all on the planet earth. In this, the precision agriculture, hydroponics, aquaponics and vertical farming are most prevalent methods of modern agricultural system. It is directly dependent on the use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, high yield varieties (HYVs), and modern machineries. The excess use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides contaminated and deteriorated the soil and cultivated agricultural crops. Thus, its consequences are soil, water, air pollution, reduction in the soil fertility and loss in the biological diversity, health issues due to the consumption of contaminated food items. The essential components for the sustainability in the agriculture are, fertile land, nutrients input, pest and pathogen repellents, irrigation water sources etc. Therefore, in most of the countries the farmers are looking for the natural farming (Rishi Kheti or Zero budget farming) and organic farming in place of modern agricultural system. The natural farming and organic farming is mostly dependent on the locally available resources such as panchagavya (cow milk, yogurt and ghee, cow manure, cow urine), plans based formulations, green manuring, crop rotation, mulching etc., that are beneficial for maintaining of soil health, water conservation, climate resilience and the produce are also free from contaminants and thus, beneficial for the human consumption and health. In this paper, we have discussed the essential components of ancient natural farming, organic farming and modern farming and have tried to made a comparative analysis of these farming systems.
Effect of nitrogen and sulphur on the growth and yield of T. Aman rice (BRRI Dhan 87)
Efficient use of nitrogen (N) and sulphur (S) is crucial for enhancing rice productivity in Bangladesh, where nutrient deficiencies significantly limit yields. This study aimed to evaluate the combined effects of N and S fertilization on the growth, yield, and soil fertility of traditional T. Aman rice (BRRI Dhan 87). A field experiment was conducted during the 2019 T. Aman season at the Agronomy Field Laboratory, Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Dhaka, following a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with 12 N-S fertilizer combinations and three replications. Results revealed that N and S significantly (p<0.05) influenced plant growth, yield attributes, and soil properties. The highest grain yield (5.67 t ha-¹) and straw yield (6.88 t ha-¹) were recorded under the N120S12 treatment, representing a 98.9% yield increase compared to the control (2.85 t ha-¹). The same treatment produced the tallest plants (131.78 cm), highest effective tillers (15.33 hill-¹), filled grains (140.37 panicle-¹), and 1000-grain weight (57.00 g). Post-harvest soil analysis showed improved organic matter (1.42%), total N (0.66%), and available P (27.03 ppm) under N120S12. The findings manifest that an integrated application of 120 kg N ha-¹ and 12 kg S ha-¹ optimizes yield performance and enhances soil fertility while minimizing resource losses. These results provide a sustainable nutrient management strategy for improving rice productivity in Bangladesh in similar agro-ecological zones.
Optimizing silicon fertilization for improved growth and yield in Boro rice
In the present era, sustaining rice productivity is increasingly challenged by various biotic and abiotic stresses, nutrient imbalances, and climate variability, prompting interest in beneficial elements like silicon (Si) for enhancing plant resilience and improving yield. To evaluate the impact of silicon on Boro rice (cv. Binadhan-25), a field experiment was conducted during the 2024 Boro season at the Agronomy Field Laboratory, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh. The study comprised eleven treatments where recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF) were applied combining with 0 to 200 kg SiO2 ha-1 in 20 kg increments. This research was arranged in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. Results revealed that the application of 40 kg SiO2 ha-1 alongside RDF significantly improved plant height, effective tillers hill-1 and grain yield outperforming all other treatments. Grain yield increased by about 25.7% with the application of 40 kg SiO2 ha-1 compared to no silicon application to the soil. These findings emphasize the beneficial role of moderate silicon supplementation in enhancing growth and yield of Boro rice and suggest 40 kg SiO2 ha-1 as the optimum dose for productivity enhancement. Future research should explore the long-term effects of silicon on soil health and crop sustainability across different rice varieties and agro-ecological zones, considering the limitation that this study focused on a single variety under one growing season.
Socio-cultural and economic determinants of clean cooking technology adoption in Uganda
This study examined socio-cultural and economic determinants influencing clean cooking technology adoption, with emphasis on cultural norms, gender roles, income, education, and user perceptions in Uganda. A cross-sectional survey of 480 households from urban, peri-urban, and rural areas in six districts employed structured interviews and questionnaires. Awareness of improved cook stoves and alternative fuels (briquettes, LPG, ethanol) was high (74%), but adoption was low (27%). Major barriers included high upfront costs (68%), limited distribution networks (52%), and perceived incompatibility with traditional cooking methods, especially for staple dishes. Adoption was significantly (p < 0.05) higher among households with at least one adult completing secondary education (42% vs. 18%) and those earning above UGX 300,000 or 83.90 USD /month, who were 3.1 times more likely to adopt. Women were the primary cooks in 93% of households, with girls aged 7–16 frequently assisting. Cultural beliefs, such as firewood enhancing food flavor and symbolizing tradition, further influenced adoption decisions. The findings indicated that accelerating clean cooking adoption in Uganda requires culturally sensitive and gender-responsive interventions, integration of local knowledge, targeted behavior change communication, supportive policy frameworks, and sustained financing. Strengthening supply chains and empowering women as energy entrepreneurs are essential to achieve Sustainable Development Goal 7 (SDG 7) on universal modern energy access.
Effects of variety and sowing dates on yield and yield attributes of sesame (Sesamum indicum L.)
Ideal planting time, varietal and suitable cultivar is the most common problem facing by the sesame growers. Accordingly, a field trial was carried out at the Regional Agricultural Research Station, BARI, Cumilla, from February to June 2023 to investigate the response of variety and sowing date on the yield and yield components of sesame. The experiments were based on two factors. Factor A: varieties (i) BARI Til-4 (V1), (ii) BARI Til-6 (V2) and (iii) Binatil-2 (V3) and Factor B: five sowing dates (i) 20th February (T1), (ii) 2nd March (T2), (iii) 12th March (T3), (iv) 22nd March (T4), (v) 2nd April (T5). The experiment was arranged as RCBD with three replications. Results indicated that major traits of sesame: yield and yield components were significantly influenced by variety, sowing date and their interaction The variety Binatil-2 showed higher values for number of capsules plant-¹ (69.7), capsule weight plant-¹ (118.01 g), number of seeds capsule-¹ (59.8), 1000-seed weight (2.28 g), seed yield (859.7 kg ha-¹) and biological yield (3658 kg ha-¹). Sowing of seed on 20th February led to maximum plant height (154.1 cm), capsules plant-¹ (78.4), 1000-seed weight (2.77 g), and seed yield (1205 kg ha-¹). Binatil-2 in interaction with 20th February sown gave maximum 1000-grain weight (3.06 g), seed (1463 kg ha-¹) and harvest index (24.47%) which was advantageous for its better performance under these conditions. Thus, selection of variety played a significant role in the capsule and seed yield of sesame as evidenced in Binatil-2 variety and needs to be grown for more sustainable sesame production.
Profitability of pineapple intercrops in Madhupur upazila of Tangail district of Bangladesh
Pineapple intercropping is a smart and sustainable agricultural practice for enhancing farm profitability and land use efficiency in Bangladesh. This study was conducted to analyze the socioeconomic characteristics and loan profile, determine the profitability, and assess the problems and constraints faced by the farmers in pineapple intercrop production in Madhupur upazila of Tangail district in Bangladesh. Primary data were collected from 90 randomly selected farmers across five villages in the study area. The study focused on three specific intercropping patterns: pineapple-aroid, pineapple-ginger, and pineapple-turmeric, with 30 farmers representing each group. The data were analyzed using tabular and profitability analysis methods. Findings reveal that the majority of farmers were middle-aged (30–64 years), primarily engaged in agriculture, with an average family size of 5.42. Most respondents belonged to the middle-income group and cultivated an average of 85 decimals of land. A significant portion of farmers received agricultural loans and demonstrated high repayment performance. All three intercropping patterns were economically viable, with a total cost per hectare of Tk. 697540.06 (US$ 5837.15) for pineapple-aroid, Tk. 720526.62 (US$ 6029.51) for pineapple-ginger, and Tk. 724033.85 (US$ 6058.86) for pineapple-turmeric. The corresponding net returns were Tk. 963130.66 (US$ 8059.67), Tk. 1206978.03 (US$ 10100.23), and Tk. 1017049.40 (US$ 8510.87), while the Benefit-Cost Ratio (BCR) stood at 2.38, 2.68, and 2.40, respectively. Although pineapple intercropping is profitable, farmers encounter significant challenges, such as high input costs and pest infestations. The government and relevant authorities must take essential actions to address the challenges and limitations encountered by farmers.
Assessing farmers’ knowledge of good agricultural practices in vegetable farming: A study in northern Bangladesh
Producing vegetables safely, sustainably, and of high quality requires good agricultural practices (GAP). This study thoroughly examined vegetable farmers’ knowledge of GAP, identified the factors influencing their level of knowledge, and explored the problems they encounter in applying GAP in vegetable production in the Rangpur district of northern Bangladesh. Data were collected using a pre-tested questionnaire from 240 randomly selected vegetable farmers in the Kursha Union of Taraganj sub-district in Rangpur district. Farmers’ knowledge was evaluated using six levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy, while multiple and stepwise regression analyses identified key influencing factors and their impact. In addition, the Problem Facing Index (PFI) was applied to rank the problems faced by them in implementing GAP. The results indicated that only 3.3% of participants had good knowledge, whereas 46.7% had moderate knowledge, and 50% had poor knowledge. Among the ten examined socio-economic and personal factors of the farmers, educational level, agricultural training experience, and contact with extension media significantly affected farmers’ GAP knowledge. Contact with extension media was the strongest predictor, accounting for 66.7% of the variance in knowledge levels. Regarding implementation issues, 53.3% of respondents reported high problems, followed by 40% experiencing medium problems. The top three problems included a lack of GAP training, a limited understanding of GAP standards, and inadequate knowledge of integrated pest and disease management. The study highlights the need for strengthening extension services and providing targeted training programs to improve farmers’ knowledge and promote effective adoption of GAP in sustainable vegetable farming.
Nutrient management with cow dung and chemical fertilizers enhances leaf yield and gel constituents in Aloe vera
Since ancient times, Aloe vera has been used extensively, including in the cosmetics and food businesses. Commercial cultivation of A. vera is scarce due to lack of information. Therefore, a field experiment was conducted to examine the integrated effect of inorganic fertilizer (IF) and cow dung (CD) on the growth, yield, and nutritional composition of A. vera. A randomized complete block design (RCBD) with four replications was used for the experiment having total nine treatment combinations of IF and CD viz., IF 0% + CD 0%, IF 100% + CD 0%, IF 75% + CD 25%, IF 50% + CD 50%, IF 40% + CD 60%, IF 30% + CD 70%, IF 20% + CD 80%, IF 10% + CD 90%, and IF 0% + CD 100%. Varying combinations of IF and CD significantly influenced the studied parameters. On average, applications of 30% IF and 70% CD enhanced the leaf yield by 37%, gel yield by 31% and nutritional quality by 28% compared to control. The post-harvest soil characteristics, including the percentage of nitrogen and organic matter, soil pH, exchangeable potassium, available phosphorus, and available sulfur, were found to increase with the higher application of cow dung. Applying both 30% IF and 70% CD showed a substantial increase in growth, yield, gel nutritional quality, and post-harvest soil characteristics compared to other treatments including control. Therefore, application of 30% IF with 70% CD could be a best strategy for obtaining improved growth, yield, and nutritional quality of A. vera.
Impact of sulfur and phosphorus fertilization on growth and yield of perilla oil crop (Perilla frutescens) under net house condition in Bangladesh
The current study aimed to evaluate the effects of sulfur (S) and phosphorus (P) fertilization on the growth and yield of Perilla frutescens, an emerging oilseed crop in Bangladesh. The experiment was conducted under net house conditions at the Agronomy Department, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh from July to December 2024. A Completely Randomized Design (CRD) scheme was followed, comprising four sulfur levels (0, 9.25, 18.5, and 27.75 kg ha-¹) and four phosphorus levels (0, 20, 30, and 40 kg ha-¹). Sulfur and phosphorus were supplied through gypsum and triple superphosphate (TSP), respectively. Growth parameters viz. plant height branch number, receme count, 1000-seed weight etc. were recorded along with biological yield and harvest index. The results revealed that both sulfur and phosphorus significantly (p<0.05) influenced perilla productivity. Sulfur application at 18.5 kg ha-¹ produced the highest seed yield (0.90 t ha-¹), while higher or lower levels reduced yield performance. Similarly, phosphorus application at 30 kg ha-¹ maximized yield (1.09 t ha-¹). Notably, the combined application of 18.5 kg S ha-¹ with 30 kg P ha-¹ yielded the highest productivity (1.50 t ha-¹), outperforming sole applications of either nutrient. This interaction shows the synergistic role of balanced S and P fertilization in enhancing seed yield and harvest index. The study provides the experimental evidence on nutrient management for perilla in Bangladesh, indicating that moderate sulfur (100 kg gypsum ha-¹) and phosphorus (150 kg TSP ha-¹) fertilization can significantly improve growth and yield.
Comparative study of various botanical and chemical pesticides against red pumpkin beetle (Aulacophora foveicollis) in summer squash at Bhojpur, Nepal
The red pumpkin beetle (Aulacophora foveicollis) is an invasive pest of summer squash (Cucurbita pepo) that damages seedlings, skeletonize leaves and flower buds, ultimately reducing yield. This study, conducted in Bhojpur, Nepal, examined the effectiveness of selected pesticides for the control of Red Pumpkin Beetle (RPB). A Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) was used with seven treatments; each replicated three times. It assessed the effectiveness of Deltamethrin, Profenofos, Malathion, Emmamectin benzoate, Neem oil, Tobacco extract, and water spray. Data on beetle population and leaf damage severity were collected before spray and at 1, 3, 6, and 10 days after spray (DAS), then analyzed using ANOVA and DMRT. Results indicated that Deltamethrin emerged as the most effective, reducing beetle population to 0.71 beetles/plant and leaf damage to 9.46%. Profenofos demonstrated similar efficacy with 0.90 beetles/plant and 13.06% damage. Malathion and Emmamectin benzoate were moderately effective, while Neem oil and Tobacco extract were least effective but better than water spray, which recorded 3.96 beetles/plant and 48.91% damage. All pesticides reduced beetle populations compared to control, but Deltamethrin and Profenofos were most effective and statistically similar. These findings emphasize the importance of selecting appropriate pesticides and applying correct dosages for effective management of Red Pumpkin Beetle.
Optimizing nitrogen and sulphur nutrition for enhanced yield and yield-attributing traits in groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.)
Optimizing nutrient management is pivotal for the proper growth and development of plants to ensure higher productivity. The present study evaluated the effect of different nitrogen-sulphur levels on the growth and yield of groundnut. The experiment comprised six N-S treatment combinations (F1-6: N 30, 40 and S 0, 20, 30 kg ha-1) with a control (F0: N 0 and S 0 kg ha-1) using Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with three replications. The result demonstrated significant yield improvements of groundnut under N and S applications compared to the control. Notably, Binachinabadam-8 (V2) treated with the highest level of N-S (F6, N 40 and S 30 kg ha-1) demonstrated the best performance, with enhanced plant height (46.67 cm), number of branches plant-1 (8.67), number of pods plant-1 (37.67), weight of pods plant-1 (27.84 g), number of seeds pod-1 (2.10), 100-seed weight (8.67 g), shelling percentage (73.52%), seed yield (1.55 t ha-1), stover yield (3.07 t ha-1), biological yield (5.36 t ha-1) and harvest index (42.66%). Further statistical analyses, such as Pearson correlation analysis, heatmap analysis, and PCA, confirmed trait contributions like number and weight of pods plant-1, shelling percentage, 100-seed weight, plant height, and number of branches plant-1 for yield variation. The cultivation of Binachinabadam-8 with 40 kg N ha-1 (≈87 kg Urea ha-1) and 30 kg S ha-1 (≈167 kg Gypsum ha-1) might offer a promising strategy towards groundnut productivity. The study provides valuable insights for developing nutrient management strategies aimed at sustainable groundnut production in less nutrient soils.
Effect of different priming applications on seed germination and seedling growth of brinjal (Solanum melongena L.)
An experiment was conducted in IAAS, Lamjung to determine the effects of different priming treatments on seed germination and seedling growth of brinjal (var. Purple Long). The experiment was laid out under a single factor completely randomized design (CRD) with six treatments and five replications. The seeds of brinjal were primed with distilled water, 10% polyethylene glycol (PEG), 4% Mannitol, 2% sodium chloride (NaCl) and 100 ppm gibberellic acid (GA3) which were compared with non-primed seeds as a control. The seeds of brinjal were primed by direct immersion for 24 hours and were dried for moisture equilibrium recovery after hydration. The result showed that GA3 priming significantly (p<0.05) reduced mean germination time and enhanced germination percentage of brinjal, root length, and vigor index than unprimed brinjal seeds. Priming with distilled water resulted good root length and greater fresh weight of brinjal than other primed and unprimed brinjal seeds. GA3 priming was found better than other treatments as compared to control. Thus, seed priming with GA3 would be beneficial for better seed germination and subsequent growth of seedlings in brinjal.
Influence of different spacing regimes on growth and productivity of BARI tomato-2
Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is a widely cultivated vegetable crop whose productivity is strongly influenced by its spacing and plant population. A field experiment was conducted at Rajshahi region during December,2024 to April, 2025 to evaluate the effect of different plant spacing’s (D1=40 × 45 cm, D2=50 × 45 cm, and D3=60 × 45 cm) on the growth and yield of tomato (BARI Tomato -2). The experiment was laid out in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. Healthy seedlings of BARI Tomato-2 were transplanted in well-prepared plots according to the assigned spacing treatments. Results revealed that wider spacing (D3) significantly enhanced vegetative and reproductive parameters compared to narrower spacings. Plants at D3 cm attained the greatest height, which was 72% higher than those grown at D1 cm. This spacing produced a higher number of primary (24%) and productive branches (62%) compared to D1. Furthermore, proper spacing provides more fruit weight, more fruits per plant (25% more than D1) and increased biological yield (4.3 tha1) compared to closed spacing. Consequently, D3 spacing achieved the highest yield (38%) per hectare, which was 26% higher than D1. Thus, adopting an appropriate spacing (both inter and intra row) regime, particularly D3 is crucial for maximizing tomato growth and yield.
Life cycle of Zygogramma bicolorata and its effectiveness as biocontrol of Parthenium hysterophorus in Lamjung, Nepal
The invasive weed Parthenium hysterophorus L. poses a significant ecological and agricultural threat in Nepal, necessitating effective and sustainable management strategies. This study investigates the life cycle and biocontrol efficacy of Zygogramma bicolorata Pallister against P. hysterophorus under greenhouse conditions in Lamjung, Nepal. Detailed observations on developmental biology revealed an average life span of 62–78 days from egg to adult, with females showing longer longevity (43.3±0.72 days) than males (37.0±0.94 days). Each female laid an average of 650±21.45 eggs during its lifespan, with 84.08% hatching success, 81.32% pupal recovery, and 78.69% adult emergence. The beetle exhibited four distinct larval instars, each showing progressive growth and color changes, followed by pupation at 3–5 cm soil depth. Feeding potential varied with the developmental stage and beetle density. Feeding trials revealed that both adults and larvae caused significant defoliation of Parthenium with higher beetle densities leading to faster defoliation. Defoliation was faster at the seedling stage than the flowering stage, with five beetle pairs completing defoliation in 1.13 days and 6.67 days, respectively, compared to 6.67 and 15.67 days with two pairs. Larvae were particularly voracious feeders, contributing more substantially to defoliation than adults. Based on these findings, Z. bicolorata shows strong potential as a biocontrol agent against P. hysterophorus, and further field-based research is recommended to evaluate its establishment and effectiveness across Nepal’s diverse agro ecological zones.
Potatoes for prosperity: Enhancing food security, livelihoods, and climate resilience in Nepal
Potatoes have played a vital role in shaping Nepal’s agricultural economy and food system for many years. It is cultivated across diverse altitudes and climatic zones, and make a substantial contribution to household nutrition, rural livelihoods, and national food security. Focusing on the growing challenges of climate change, population growth, and rising food demand, the potato's short cultivation period, high yield, and adaptability position it as a key component of Nepal’s strategy for sustainable agriculture. This review examines the current state of potato cultivation in Nepal, focusing on its socioeconomic impact, production trends, major challenges, research achievements, and future outlook. It emphasizes the importance of sustainable farming practices, varietal improvement, efficient seed systems, and supportive policies to strengthen the crop’s role in achieving national food security. Recent advancements in potato research and development offer promising solutions to address Nepal’s ongoing food security challenges. The findings of this study are useful for potato researchers, producers, and policy makers for sustainability in potato production in Nepal.
Knowledge and application of Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) among cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) growers in Bharatpur metropolitan city, Nepal
A study was conducted to determine the Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs) adopted by cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) growers in Ward 27 of Bharatpur Metropolitan City, Chitwan, Nepal. For the collection of data, 60 cucumber growers were interviewed through a semi-structured questionnaire. Farmers were categorized as GAP aware farmers and GAP unaware farmers. The data was analyzed using descriptive statistical tools, such as t-test and binary logit regression analysis. The results revealed that only 25% of the farmers were aware of GAP. Although, majority of farmers were not aware of GAP, i.e., 75%, yet they managed to apply various good agricultural practices on their farms. 70% of farmers planted the recommended variety, 70% practiced mulching, and 60% applied the recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF). Likewise, almost all (93.33%) integrated organic nutrients alongside chemical fertilizers, whereas 81.7% applied irrigation water free from harmful contaminants. The results revealed that 65% farmers used PPE while handling chemical fertilizers and 61.7% adopted IPM. Very few, 29% of respondents kept the record, which was determined to be the least adopted among other practices. From the result of the binary logit regression analysis, none of the independent factors were found to be statistically affecting GAP awareness. Poor access to government services, followed by inadequate access to GAP input, were found to be the major problems related to GAP adoption. Limited knowledge and training, and limited market incentives were other major problems faced by farmers.
Reducing environmental pollution through improved medical waste management: An Assessment of practices and strategies in Patuakhali Municipality, Bangladesh
Effective medical waste (MW) management is crucial because of its significant effects on human health and the environment. In Patuakhali Municipality, improper handling of medical waste in various healthcare facilities is contributing to increased vulnerability to the spread of diseases such as diarrhea, hepatitis, and various skin infections. The aim of the study is to categorize different types of medical waste, determine their generation rates, evaluate current waste management practices, and identify shortcomings by comparing them with standard procedures. The study was conducted across 14 selected healthcare establishments (HCEs) that contribute substantially to the municipality’s total medical waste. A descriptive research methodology was used, involving field surveys and interviews with hospital authorities and waste management personnel. Findings revealed that these facilities generate approximately 1495 kg of medical waste per day, of which 1328.6kg/day (88.7%) is non-infectious and 166.4 kg/day (11.13%) is infectious. The average waste generation rate is 1.54 kg per bed per day or 0.30 kg per patient per day. The study highlights the absence of systematic and regulated medical waste management. Key barriers identified include lack of awareness among staff, insufficient financial resources, and limited institutional willingness to improve practices. Furthermore, the existing system lacks proper segregation, storage, and disposal measures. Some examples of proper medical waste management are provided, along with identified gaps in the current system. Therefore, Patuakhali Municipality and HCEs authorities should adopt appropriate policies and implement training programs for personnel involved in medical waste handling to improve overall management practices.
Effects of restricted feeding regimes on greenhouse gas emission, production and economics of tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) monoculture in pond
This study evaluated the effects of different feeding regimes on water quality parameters, fish growth, feed performance, economic returns and greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs) in Oreochromis mossambicus monoculture. Three treatments were applied viz. T1: regular feeding (twice daily); T2: feeding off 1 day/week and T3: feeding off 2 days/week, each with two replications. Significant variations (P<0.05) were found in water quality parameters such as dissolved oxygen (4.59±0.24 to 6.31±0.22 mg/L), pH (5.51±0.08 to 6.60±0.01), CO2 (4.59±0.24 to 6.31±0.22 mg/L) and total dissolved solids (520.68±3.74 to 554.57±3.78 mg/L), while temperature remained within the optimal range (29.06 to 29.320C). Growth performance was highest in T1 (final weight: 249.65 g; SGR: 2.08%) and lowest in T3 (190.63 g, SGR: 1.74%). FCR ranged from 1.67 to 1.87, and survival rate from 80.50% to 87.50%. Net profit was highest in T2 (454322.78 BDT/ha) followed by T1 and T3, indicating 16.7% increase over T1 and 50.2% over T3. Cost-benefit ratio was also highest in T2 (0.70), suggesting economic viability of moderate feed deprivation. Importantly, GHGs emissions were maximum in T1 (8.75 kg/ha/year), and minimum in T3 (6.62 kg/ha/year), showing a 24.3% reduction with intermittent feeding. These findings highlight that moderate feed restrictions (T2) can optimize production performance, enhance profitability, and reduced environmental impact, offering a sustainable strategy for tilapia aquaculture. This dual benefit approach supports economic efficiency and environmental sustainability, aligning with global goals for climate-smart aquaculture.
Plant growth and phosphate uptake of two leafy vegetables (Trigonella sp. and Spinacia sp.) as influenced by phosphate solubilizing fungi
The present work was focused on improving the growth and phosphate uptake in leafy vegetables by supplying phosphate bioinoculants. A total of 41 isolates from 50 rhizospheric soil samples were isolated through the serial dilution method by Pikovskaya’s medium. Among them 6 PSF with maximum solubilization index (3.08 to 3.86) selected and further evaluated. They showed good results in decreased pH (4.0 to 3.1 from an initial pH of 6.89), titrable acidity (30.16g/L to 38.08g/L), and phosphate concentration in culture broth (60µg to 25µg). Isolate PSF 39 showed maximum plant height (7.8cm at 15 days after sowing and 10.1cm at harvest), root length (5.5cm), biomass (2.11g of fresh weight and 1.01g of dry weight), leafy vegetable weight (2.01g), plant phosphorus uptake (0.393%) and available P in rhizosphere soil (346.96Kg/ha) in Trigonella sp. PSF 38 produced the most plant height (15.7cm at 15 days after sowing and 30.6cm at harvest), root length (10.9cm), biomass (11.23g fresh weight and 3.82g dry weight), leafy vegetable weight (10.32g), plant phosphorus uptake (0.369%) and available P in rhizosphere soil (346.29 Kg/ha) in Spinacia sp. From the results, the PSF inoculants can be recommended as phosphate solubilizers in the agricultural field as able to promote plant growth in leafy vegetables.
Tomato production in Nawalparasi East district, Nepal: Socio-economic, marketing, institutional, and constraint analysis
A survey was conducted to assess the socio-economics, marketing, institutional involvement and problems of the production of tomato in Nawalparasi East District, Nepal. Among the tomato farmers of Kawasoti Municipality - 17 and Madhyabindhu Municipality - 1, 94 farmers were selected for the survey. Data were collected through a household survey using a semi-structured questionnaire, and analyzed using Excel and IBM SPSS Statistics software. Various descriptive methods, like mean, standard deviation, and frequency, were used in the analysis of data and diagrams like bar graphs and charts for the visualization of the data. Cost, net return, gross return, and benefit-cost ratio were calculated to understand the economics of tomato production. The average cost of tomato production in the study site was NRs. 3,90,500.15 (2808.42 USD) per hectare. Human labour, fertilizer, and mulching were significant contributors to the cost of production of tomatoes. Similarly, net margin and benefit-cost ratio were found to be NRs. 127534.85 (917.21 USD) per hectare and 1.33. Producer → Wholesale Market → Retailer → Consumer was the most dominant, and 60 % of the farmers have received training for the production of tomatoes through different organizations. Also, 69 % of them were getting some kind of subsidy on seed, mulching, and irrigation facilities through different institutions. The major production and marketing problems were incidence of disease and pests, unavailability of quality seeds, high middleman margin, and price fluctuation. However, the study indicated that tomato production is a highly potential agricultural enterprise for the study area.
Yield performance of wheat genotypes for resistance to spot blotch caused by Bipolaris sorokiniana (Sacc.) Shoemaker
Spot blotch of wheat, caused by Bipolaris sorokiniana (Sacc.) Shoemaker, is an important wheat disease in Nepal. The purpose of the study was to assess wheat genotypes for resistance to the spot blotch and their yield potential in field conditions. A field trial was conducted with 100 wheat genotypes using an alpha-lattice design with two replications, under natural conditions at the National Maize Research Program, Rampur, Chitwan, Nepal. Disease assessment was performed using both double-digit (recorded four times at eight-day intervals) and single-digit (recorded three times at three-day intervals) scales. The single-digit visual scoring for the flag and flag-1 leaves began 97 days after sowing. Genotypes were categorized based on the final disease severity of the flag leaves. The genotypes differed significantly (p<0.001) for resistance to spot blotch. Of the 100 genotypes, one (NRN35) was found moderately resistant, 19 were moderately susceptible, 60 were susceptible, and 20 were highly susceptible. The plot grain yield (482 g) of NRN35 was the second highest among genotypes. A significant negative correlation (p<0.001) between the Area under disease progress curve and yield-attributing traits was found. In addition, a strong positive correlation (r = 0.762, p<0.001) was found between the disease incidence in the flag-1 and flag leaves. This study identifies NRN35 as a promising genotype that combines moderate resistance with high yield, making it a valuable candidate for wheat improvement programs. Its performance under natural disease pressure underscores the potential for developing spot blotch-resilient varieties through strategic breeding.
Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the agronomic practices of rice farmers: A case study in Mymensingh district of Bangladesh
This study was conducted to determine the changes occurred in agronomic practices during the COVID-19 pandemic among rice farmers in rural and peri-urban areas of Mymensingh district of Bangladesh. A survey was conducted among 64 farmers including 32 from rural areas and 32 from peri-urban areas. This study examined the characteristics of farmers, the extent of changes in agronomic practices adopted, problems faced by farmers during the pandemic, strategies adopted to cope with the pandemic situation, and possible solutions. There were significant differences in agronomic practices between rural and peri-urban farmers, with education, training exposure, and extension personnel contact being substantial factors for both the groups. Farmers faced different problems related to agronomic practices; however, rural farmers faced more problems compared to peri-urban farmers. In terms of strategies, rural farmers emphasized local sourcing for agricultural inputs, while peri-urban farmers emphasized on marketing via mobile phone calls. Both rural and peri-urban farmers suggested that more incentives from the government would be the most effective solution during the post-pandemic time. Rural farmers had more stable rice yields than peri-urban farmers despite making more changes in agronomic activities during the pandemic. Most of the rural farmers changed their fertilizer application techniques and patterns, while majority of the peri-urban farmers changed their seed selection and planting techniques to cope with the pandemic. The findings of the present study will help to formulate strategies to cope with similar situations in the future to ensure food security in the country and livelihood of the farming community.
Techno-economic analysis of clean cooking technologies and fuels in Uganda
Access to clean, affordable, and efficient cooking energy is a key development challenge in Uganda, with over 90% of households and institutions relying on traditional biomass fuels. This study was focused on techno-economic assessment of cooking technologies and fuels through Controlled Cooking Tests (CCTs), surveys, and interviews across household and institutional settings to evaluate fuel consumption, cooking time, cost, and user preferences across wood, charcoal, briquettes, LPG, and electric stoves. The results showed that electric hot plates and LPG stoves were the most energy-efficient, consuming 10.42 MJ and 13.28 MJ, respectively, cooking of 1 kg of beans compared to 38.81 MJ for improved wood stoves and 102.44 MJ for traditional three-stone fires. Cooking time, the improved institutional wood stove was the fastest (129 min), followed by LPG (151 min), traditional stoves (153 min), and electric hot plates (174 min). Fuel cost per kg of beans cooked was highest for LPG (Ugx 5,506) and electricity (Ugx 4,393), while improved briquette stoves were the cheapest (Ugx 302), though their adoption remains limited due to availability issues. Improved biomass stoves demonstrated up to 62% energy savings compared to traditional devices, offering a cost-effective and scalable transition option. This study provides the first comprehensive performance comparison across multiple fuel-stove combinations in Uganda and highlights critical trade-offs between energy efficiency, cost, and accessibility. Strategic policy actions including targeted subsidies, investment in clean fuel supply chains, and behaviour change campaigns are recommended to accelerate adoption and support Uganda’s energy, climate, and development goals.
Economic analysis of maize production in traditional and mechanized farming systems in Nilkantha Municipality, Dhading, Nepal
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the economic analysis as costs and profitability of maize production in traditional and mechanized farming systems. For this, a purposive random sampling of 101 maize farmers, comprising 30 using traditional methods and 71 employing mechanized systems was selected for structured household surveys. Cobb-Douglas production function, independent sample t-test, chi-square test, and descriptive statistics was performed using MS Excel and STATA software. Farmers under traditional and mechanized systems produced maize on average on 6.18 and 5.46 ropani, respectively. In mechanized systems, the mini tiller was the main tool used for the land preparation, while urea and farmyard manure (FYM) were the main suppliers of nutrients. Weeding was the most expensive operation in maize production. Traditional farming incurred higher costs for land preparation, planting, and plant protection. The net return per ropani was NRs. 1158.98 (8.47$) for traditional farming and NRs. 1597.44 (11.67$) for mechanized farming. The benefit-cost ratios were 1.42 for traditional and 1.57 for mechanized systems, respectively. Although the difference in returns per area between the two systems was not statistically significant, but mechanization effectively reduced production costs and enhanced profitability, representing a viable approach to improving maize farmers' financial circumstances. Cobb-Douglas production function analysis revealed a coefficient sum of 0.756 for traditional systems and 1.248 for mechanized systems, indicating decreasing and increasing returns to scale, respectively. Therefore, adoption of mechanization for maize production is recommended for cost minimization and profit maximization in Dhading district of Nepal.
Risk assessment of a Disinfection By-Product (DBP) on mitotic chromosomes using Allium root-tip bioassay
The process of disinfection of water, using chemicals like chlorine, bromine or iodine, leads to formation of certain chemicals called Disinfection By-Products (DBPs). These chemicals were once considered potentially harmless but as their levels are increasing in potable water, concerns over their toxic effects are growing worldwide. Chlorinated DBPs are of highest concern in case of swimming pool waters as they provide greatest exposure to skin, eyes and mouth of the swimmers. This study was therefore planned with an aim to evaluate the cytotoxic effects of DBPs on mitotic chromosomes of Allium cepa roots under controlled laboratory conditions. For this study, Trichloroacetic Acid (a common DBP) was dissolved in water in concentration levels that are common in swimming pool waters. This was used as a medium to grow roots in A. cepa bulbs. The cells of the roots grown in exposure of Trichloroacetic acid (TCAA) were then cytologically analysed. Results showed mitotic abnormalities like micronuclei, bridge formation, fragmentation, stickiness etc. with total abnormalities reaching up to 26.81%. Active Mitotic Index showed a dose dependent reduction with a mito-inhibition of 41.68% at highest treatment dose. Such an assessment of cytotoxic potential of TCAA on plant cell mitosis has rarely been attempted which makes the study novel. This bioassay showed that DPBs definitely have the mutagenic potential even under short term exposure and can become a bigger problem with successive bio-magnification. Hence, it proves the effectiveness of Allium mitosis bioassay in testing cytotoxicity of DBPs.
Effect of sowing methods and spacings on growth and yield attributes of spring maize (Zea mays L.) in Parbat, Nepal
The study was conducted in Phalewas Municipality, Parbat district, Nepal to assess the effect of two sowing methods (ridge bed and raised bed) and four plant spacings (60×15 cm, 60×20 cm, 60×25 cm and 60×30 cm) on growth and yield characteristics of spring maize for improving the maize yield. This experiment aimed to identify adequate sowing method and optimum spacing using a randomized complete block design with three replications. Results of this study showed that yield attributing characteristics per plant was significantly (p<0.05) impacted with decrement in plant spacing up to 60×15 cm. Likewise, number of cobs per plant, ear length, ear circumference, number of kernels per row, grains per cob was found significantly at par up to 60×20 cm spacing but significantly (p<0.05) higher than 60×15 cm. 60×20 cm spacing was found to have the highest impact on biometrical as well as yield attributes. The grain yield (6.53 Mt/ha) was significantly (p<0.05) higher at 60×20 cm than at 60×25 cm and 60×30 cm but at par with 60×15 cm. There was no discernible effect of the sowing method on the metrics of grain yield between ridge bed and raised bed sowing. However, both bed sowing methods significantly (p<0.05) improved the grain yield of maize (5.78 Mt/ha), compared to the farmer's practice in Parbat district. Therefore, this study suggested that farmers of Parbat can combine 60×20 cm plant spacing with bed sowing methods to maximize the production of maize.
Comparative analysis of microbial contamination in vegetables sourced from farms, markets and street vendors in cape coast, Ghana
Safety of fresh vegetables has become a critical public health concern, especially in urban centers where contamination can occur at multiple points along the food supply chain. This study enumerated the microbial load of some selected vegetables (lettuce, cabbage, green pepper, and carrot) collected from farms, markets, and street food vendors within the Cape Coast metropolis. A total of 24 fresh vegetables were conveniently sampled from 3 locations and analyzed for certain microbial contaminants such as Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella species. Standard microbial techniques were used for the culture and identification of the selected microbes. Results showed E. coli counts ranged from 4.53 log10 CFUg-1 (UCCSM-L) to 2.23 log10 CFUg-1 (UCCBV-L) while S. aureu ranged from 3.68 log10 CFUg-1 (UCCBV-L) to 0 log10 CFUg-1 with six of the samples recording the least count. Aerobic Mesophilic counts ranged from 3.23 to 6.72 log10 CFUg-1. Salmonella species were present in 16.67% samples, while L. monocytogenes was absent in all samples. The cabbage, carrot and lettuce samples collected from the Cape Coast Metropolis had high microbial loads followed by green pepper samples. Therefore, the detection of pathogenic microorganisms such as E. coli, S. aureus, and Salmonella spp. underscores a serious public health concern. The presence of these pathogens suggests poor hygienic practices during transport and vending of these vegetables.
Assessment of levels of heavy metals in some common local spices sold in two markets in Cape Coast Ghana
The study examined levels of lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd) and copper (Cu) in ten spices sold in Abura and Kotokoraba markets, Cape Coast-Ghana to determine their safety for consumption. Samples of spices were collected from the markets and analyzed for Pb, Cd and Cu using atomic absorption spectrophotometry. A one-way analysis of variance was used to compare mean levels of metals in spices from these markets, followed by Tukey’s post hoc test to identify specific pairwise differences among the spices. Mean Cd levels were below detectable limits. Mean Pb levels did not differ significantly between markets (F = 1.004, p = 0.450), indicating similar contamination patterns. Mean Cu levels differed significantly (F = 3.472, p = 0.002), with ginger showing markedly higher Cu levels than garlic, rosemary, aniseed, grains of paradise, negro pepper, bay leaf, cloves, and chili pepper. Results suggest that differences found in Cu levels may depend on the type of spice rather than location of market. While Pb contamination appears uniform across both markets, the Cu disparity underscores the need for commodity-specific control strategies. The study recommends targeted monitoring of high risk spices particularly ginger through source tracing, vendor education, and stricter regulatory checks. This research provides a comparative market analysis of heavy metals in Ghanaian spices, offering evidence to strengthen public health protection and ensure safer spice trade practices.
Evaluation of the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities of algae-mediated zinc oxide nanoparticles
The current study investigates the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant potential of zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles synthesized using an algal extract as a green, eco-friendly reducing and stabilizing agent. The biosynthesized nanoparticles were characterized using UV-Vis spectroscopy (UV, absorption peak 330 nm) XRD (24 nm crystalline size), SEM (rod shaped morphology) and FTIR (Zn-O bond at 671cm-1). Anti-inflammatory activity was assessed using the bovine serum albumin (BSA) protein denaturation method showing dose dependent inhibition (28.4-88.0 % at 100- 500 ug/ml; IC50 = 251.64 ug/ml), comparable to ibuprofen (IC50 = 233.60 ug/ml). Antioxidant activity of green synthesised ZnO nanoparticles was evaluated using DPPH free radical scavenging assay (28.8-88.0% at 100- 500 ug/ml; IC50 = 200.06 ug/ml) attaining ~ 85% efficacy of ascorbic acid (IC50 = 171ug/ml). Results showed that ZnO NPs exhibited strong, concentration-dependent anti-inflammatory activity, inhibiting BSA denaturation by 28.4% to 88% over a range of 100–500 µg/mL, with an IC50 value of 251.64 µg/mL, closely comparable that of ibuprofen (IC50=233.6 µg/mL). Moreover, the nanoparticles showed substantial antioxidant activity, with DPPH radical scavenging ranging from 28.8% to 88.9% within the same concentration range, and an IC50 of 200.06 µg/mL—comparable to ascorbic acid (IC50=171 µg/mL). The bioactivities are likely enhanced by the phytochemicals present in A. platensis, such as phenolic compounds and C-phycocyanin. Thus, algae-mediated ZnO nanoparticles exhibit significant anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects in a dose-dependent manner, suggesting their potential as bioactive agents for pharmaceutical and therapeutic applications.
Assessment of physicochemical parameters and heavy metals concentration of leachates from dumpsite around Idemili River, Obosi Nigeria
Leachates originating from solid waste dumpsites pollute water bodies, especially in Nigerian urban areas. This study aimed to assess the concentrations of heavy metals and physicochemical parameters in leachates from dumpsite around the Idemili River in Obosi, Nigeria. Physicochemical parameters (pH, temperature, EC, TDS, DO, BOD, turbidity, chloride, nitrate, phosphate, sulphate), heavy metals (Zn, Pb, Cd, Cu, Fe, As) and bacteriological parameters (total and faecal coliforms) were analyzed in leachate and Idemili River water. ANOVA, Tukey’s post-hoc and Pearson correlation were applied to find spatial variations and relationships between physicochemical properties and heavy metals concentration in leachate and water samples. Results revealed significant (p<0.05) contamination, with EC, sulphate, phosphate, nitrate, Fe, Cd and Pb in leachate samples exceeding WHO/NSDWQ limits. Leachate contained significantly higher levels of Fe (4.430±3.231 mg/L), As (4.455±3.1465 mg/L) and Cd (2.8783±2.794 mg/L), suggesting potential leachate infiltration, thereby influencing water quality. Also the leachate and water samples had elevated levels of total and faecal coliforms, exceeding the WHO standards of 10 cfu/mL and 0 cfu/mL, respectively. Results also revealed significant spatial variations in the physicochemical, heavy metals, and bacteriological parameters across various sampling points in leachate and water samples. Therefore, water samples from Idemili River are unsafe for human consumption, and aquatic ecosystems, due to leachates infiltration. It is recommended that governments should adopt inclusive approaches to reducing amount of wastes reaching dumpsites.
Determinants of milk composition and somatic cell count in buffaloes from the Terai belt of Nepal
This study aimed to investigate the relationship between somatic cell count (SCC) and various milk quality parameters of buffaloes in the Chitwan district of Nepal during the year 2024. A total of 122 buffalo-owned households were selected using a cross-sectional survey design. Results indicated that average daily milk yield was highest during the first lactation (4.74 kg/day), followed by the second (4.54 kg/day), and third lactation (3.21 kg/day). Conversely, milk fat content showed a decreasing trend across successive lactations. Lactation stage significantly (p<0.05) influenced the milk’s fat, solid-not-fat (SNF), protein, and lactose content. While parity exhibited a marginal correlation with lactose concentration, it did not significantly affect milk yield, fat, SNF, or protein content. A notable finding was that high-yielding buffaloes had significantly (p<0.01) lower fat content than low-yielding counterparts. In contrast, SNF, protein, and lactose percentages were significantly (p<0.01) higher in high-yielding groups compared to low and medium-yielding ones, indicating a substantial impact of production level on milk composition. No statistically significant (p>0.05) differences were observed in SCC and electrical conductivity (EC) across varying levels of milk production, parity, or lactation stages. These findings suggested that SCC and EC are not strongly influenced by these factors under current management conditions. Key challenges identified in the study area included poor hygiene of feeding and milking equipment, unbalanced feeding practices, inadequate waste management, limited infrastructure for milk marketing, and slow adoption of modern dairy technologies.
Performance of rice variety Binadhan-12 as affected by nitrogen management practices under different submergence conditions
An experiment was conducted at the Agronomy Field Laboratory, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh during the Aman (summer season) season from August to December to find out the effect of different N management practices on the performance of Binadhan-12 under submerged condition. The experiment was laid out in a split plot design where submergence levels were allocated in the main plots and nitrogen levels were distributed in sub plots with three replications. Four submergence levels (S0=Control, S1=Submergence up to 15 days after seedling establishment, S2 = Submergence up to 20 days after seedling establishment, S3 = Submergence up to 25 days after seedling establishment) and five Nitrogen levels (N0 = Control, N1 = 100 kg N ha-1 in 3 splits after submergence, N2 = 150 kg N ha-1 in 3 splits after submergence, N3 = 100 kg N ha-1 in 2 splits after submergence, N4 = 150 kg N ha-1 in 2 splits after submergence) were used as treatments. All the crop characters showed significant differences due to the application of nitrogen. When 150 kg N/ha was applied, it showed superior performance for all the crop characters and highest grain yield (2.82 t ha-1) was obtained from this treatment. In case of submergence level maximum yield (3.49 t ha-1) was obtained in no submergence condition. However, in submergence situation, the grain yield of 2.77 t ha-1 was obtained when 150 kg N/ha was applied with three equal splits until the plants were submerged for 15 days after submergence.
Metals contamination and its ecological risk assessment in the coastal sediments of Badagry Creek, Nigeria
This study was carried out to assess heavy metals contamination and potential ecological risk in Badagry Creek, Nigeria. Concentrations of six heavy metals associated with environmental pollution were determined in the sediments using atomic absorption spectrophotometry. The evaluation of heavy metals pollution was determined using the geo-accumulation index (Igeo), modified degree of contamination and potential ecological risk index. Results showed the ranking order of heavy metals in the sediment was iron (Fe) > chromium (Cr) > lead (Pb) > zinc (Zn) > copper (Cu) > cadmium (Cd). Among sampling stations, Fe, Cu, and Zn concentrations was found to be significantly (p<0.05) varied, whereas the concentration of Pb, Cr, and Cd was found insignificantly (p>0.05) different. The Igeo results suggested that the sediment pollution level was found in the category of unpolluted to moderately polluted. Based on the modified degree of contamination, sediments categorized from non-contamination to slight contamination with heavy metals. The potential ecological risk to the biological community was recorded from low to moderate risk of heavy metals pollution. Among different heavy metals, Cd posed the most substantial risk across the sampling stations. Consequently, there is urgent requirement of appropriate regulation and management by the relevant regulatory bodies in order to stop the indiscriminate dumping of sewage and untreated waste into the creek.
Effect of cold air plasma and seaweed extract treatment on wheat seed germination and gene expression under salt stress conditions
This study investigated the potential of cold air plasma (CAP) and seaweed extract (SWE), individually and in combination, to enhance wheat seed germination and molecular responses under salinity stress. A factorial CRD experiment was conducted using four treatment types (control, cold air plasma (CAP), seaweed extract (SWE), CAP+SWE) and four salinity levels (0, 4, 8, and 12 dS/m), with detailed physiological and gene expression analyses. The dual CAP+SWE treatment significantly outperformed all other treatments across key parameters. Germination percentage increased from 63.59% in untreated seeds to 89.42%, while mean germination time decreased from 4.53 to 3.56 days. Radicle length improved from 4.23 cm to 5.44 cm, and total chlorophyll content rose from 34.24 to 40.57 SPAD units. Enzymatic activity also increased, with α-amylase rising from 3.00 to 3.96 U/mg protein and SOD from 84.08 to 92.86 U/g fresh weight under CAP+SWE. At the molecular level, RT-qPCR analysis revealed that the CAP+SWE treatment significantly upregulated salt-responsive genes: P5CS (3.42-fold), NHX1 (3.14-fold), and APX1 (3.18-fold), compared to control levels. Notably, the highest gene expression values were observed at 8 dS/m salinity, suggesting optimal stress-induction synergy. These findings showed that combining physical (CAP) and biological (SWE) priming produces complementary physiological and molecular responses, hence improving the salt stress resistance in wheat. In saline conditions, this combined priming technique is a sensible, environmentally friendly way to raise seed vigour and early growth performance.
Comparative socio-economic analysis of manual and mechanized transplantation method of spring rice (Oryza sativa) production in Chitwan, Nepal
This study aimed to assess and compare the socioeconomic aspects of mechanized and manual transplantation methods in spring rice production. A survey was conducted in 2024 through pre-tested interview schedules and Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) to collect primary data, while secondary data were collected from relevant publications. A total of 90 farmers (45 using manual transplantation and 45 using mechanized transplantation) were selected through simple random sampling from two purposively chosen municipalities. Among the respondents, 51.1% continued using the traditional manual transplantation method, while 48.9% adopted the mechanized transplantation method, citing cost-effectiveness as a key factor. Similarly, 36.69% of labour cost was accounted for total cost of production in manual transplantation method whereas only 23.45% of labour cost was accounted for total cost of production in mechanized transplantation method. The average gross margin per hectare in mechanized transplantation method (NPR 93325.25/ USD 681.58) was higher than the manual transplantation method (NPR 64654.561/ USD 472.19). Using mechanized transplantation method was more profitable (BCR: 1.76) than using manual transplantation method (BCR: 1.50) in spring rice production. The findings indicated that mechanized transplantation method significantly (p<0.05 reduces dependence on labour and enhances profitability in spring rice production. Therefore, I creased promotion of mechanization, along with policy measures and access to appropriate machinery, could reverse the productivity decline and improve the economic resilience of rice farmers in Chitwan, Nepal.
Morphological and genetic diversity of local Sudanese lines of snake melon (Cucumis melo var. flexuosus)
Snake melon (Cucumis melo var. flexuosus), an underutilized cucurbit with nutritional and cultural significance, is widely cultivated in Sudan but lacks comprehensive morphological and genetic characterization. This study aimed to assess the morphological diversity and genetic relationships among seven Sudanese snake melon genotypes using standardized descriptors and Principal Component Analysis (PCA). Field experiments were conducted during the 2022 winter season in Khartoum North under arid-zone conditions. Both qualitative traits (fruit skin and flesh colour, shape, pubescence,) and quantitative traits (fruit number, weight, size, stem length, and node count) were recorded. Significant (p<0.05) morphological variation was observed among genotypes. Genotype HsD11644 exhibited the highest fruit weight (635.33 g), length (48.57 cm), and vegetative vigor (stem length 181.4 cm), while HsD11555, though compact (stem length 84.67 cm), produced the same number of fruits per plant (11.00) as HsD11644. PCA revealed that the first two principal components explained 97.1% of the total phenotypic variation, with PC1 (81.96%) correlating strongly with fruit size and vegetative traits, and PC2 (15.16%) with fruit number. The PCA biplot showed distinct clustering, effectively differentiating genotypes based on their trait profiles. This study provides the first integrated morphological and multivariate analysis of local snake melon lines in Sudan. The identified genetic variability will support the conservation and genetic enhancement of snake melon in Sudan and similar agro-ecological conditions.
Diversity assessment of rice varieties in Khairahani Municipality, Chitwan District, Nepal
The study aims to assess varietal diversity in the Khairahani municipality of Chitwan district of Nepal. A cross-sectional survey and stratified random sampling were employed, surveying 100 households across all 13 wards. The survey focused on examining the effectiveness of varieties cultivated by farmers. Rice, the main staple crop in the Chitwan district, was found to consist of 19.20% of hybrid seeds, 9.74% of local seeds, and 71.06% of improved seeds. All hybrid seeds surveyed were registered, with 77.42% improved seeds and 20.59% of local seeds. Additionally, Chaite-5 was the most prevalent variety, followed by Sabitri and Hardinath-1 among the improved varieties, while Gorakhnath 509 dominates the hybrid category. The study applied the Shannon-Wiener Index to analyze genetic diversity, evenness, and richness among rice varieties. The diversity index for the rice genotype in Khairahani was 2.87, indicating an effective number of varieties of 17.71, a richness score of 32, and an evenness score of 0.49, suggesting moderate to high rice diversity. Agro-vets are the main suppliers of seeds, which were found to be 47%, 15% from preserved seeds, 49% from both agro-vet and preserved sources, 15% from co-operatives, and 13% from neighbors. The study suggested that registered hybrids varieties are prevalent due to higher yields, and easy accessibility, but local landraces are at risk due to their low production. Therefore, approaches aimed at promoting local rice varieties are essential for protecting genetic diversity in Khairahani municipality, Chitwan district.
Farmer’s perception and adaptation strategies to climate change on potato farming in Narayan Municipality of Dailekh district, Nepal
This study was aimed to assess farmer’s perceptions of climate change and their adaptations in potato farming in Dailekh District, Nepal. A total of 97 randomly selected respondents were selected for the study. Primary data was collected through focus group discussions, direct observation, semi-structured questionnaires while secondary data was collected through review of relevant literature. The data was analyzed using descriptive statistics, time series regression, Logit, and Seemingly Unrelated Regression model (SUR). By analyzing the farmer perception of climate change, 75.26% of the respondent experience climate change. In contrast to 84.5% farmer perceived increased temperature, 94.85% believed decrease rainfall duration with increase in rainfall intensity. The key variables determining the climate change perception of farmer were: socio-economic variables (education, farming experience, and family size) and bio-physical variables (increase in drought, change in insect pests and diseases and lack of irrigation). Based on the study, 58.76% of the farmers adopted climate adaptations. Farmers primarily adapted to climate change through changing potato variety (61.86%), adjusting planting/harvesting time (64%), changing planting method (71.13%), pest’s management, irrigation, fertilizers, and crop rotation. Logistic regression revealed higher education and attainment of training increased adaptation by 9% and 18.54%, respectively. A link was found between farmers’ perception of climate change and the implementation of some adaptation options. Thus, socioeconomic and biophysical variables have a significant association with adaptation, as well as investment in education, extension training, and access to credit, and can be considered to increase climate change adaptation to improve farmers' well-being.
Impact of human activities on Ganga River water during Kanwar Mela 2024 in Rishikesh-Haridwar region, Uttarakhand, India
The present investigation was conducted to study the water quality of the Ganga River during Kanwar Mela 2024 concerning physicochemical and microbiological characteristics in the Rishikesh-Haridwar region. Water samples were collected from fifteen designated sites, including six in Rishikesh, seven in Haridwar, and two outlet points—one from the main river stream and one from the Ganga canal. Among all sites, Har ki Pauri Ghat (HKP) exhibited the highest average levels of several key indicators of pollution: TDS (125.04 ± 34.18 mg/l), pH (7.52 ± 0.14), alkalinity (94.06 ± 10.31 mg/ml), total hardness (117.56 ± 16.43 mg/ml) BOD (2.41 ± 0.58 mg/l), COD (7.41 ± 0.87 mg/l). This site also recorded the lowest average level of DO (9.81 ± 0.63 mg/l) and the highest microbial contamination, with total coliform (2008.81 ± 188.25 MPN/100ml) and E. coli (884.8 ± 57.62 MPN/100ml), marking it as the most polluted location. The second most polluted site, Purnanand Ghat (PG) in Rishikesh, showed the highest concentration of fluoride (0.10 ± 0.09 mg/l). These findings indicated that mass bathing and associated religious activities during the Kanwar Mela significantly impacted the water quality of the Ganga River, particularly in densely visited pilgrimage zones, contributing to elevated levels of pollution. The outcomes of this study underscore the urgent need for robust water quality monitoring, public health risk assessment, and the implementation of sustainable water management policies during mass gatherings to protect the ecological integrity of the river and safeguard the health of millions who rely on it for religious, domestic, and agricultural purposes.
Dietary crude protein optimization for enhanced growth performance in indigenous chickens during the starter phase
Formulating diets that meet the nutrient requirements of indigenous chickens during the starter phase is essential for optimal growth, feed efficiency, profitability, and sustainability in poultry production. This study aimed to evaluate the growth response of indigenous chickens to varying crude protein (CP) concentrations in starter diets and to determine the optimal CP requirement during this phase. A total of 240 days-old chicks were randomly assigned to four iso-caloric starter diets containing 16%, 18%, 20%, and 22% CP, with three replicates per treatment. The birds were housed in deep-litter floor pens with 20 birds per pen, provided ad libitum access to feed and water, and monitored for eight weeks. Weekly data collection included body weight (BW) and feed intake, from which average daily gain (ADG) and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were calculated. Results showed that increasing dietary CP significantly improved growth performance. Final body weight, feed intake, and ADG increased with higher CP levels, with the 22% CP diet yielding the highest final weight (380.8 g) and ADG (12.3 g/day). However, the lowest performance was observed with the 16% CP diet. Feed intake peaked at 1300.9 g for the 22% CP diet, and FCR decreased with increasing CP content. Regression analysis suggested that FCR was optimized at 20.5% CP. These findings highlight the importance of precise CP formulations to enhance growth efficiency and profitability in intensive indigenous chicken production systems.
Environmental factors affecting Trichoderma spp. and their biocontrol potential in post-harvest disease management
Trichoderma species are filamentous fungi inhabiting soil environments and employed in agriculture due to their capacity to enhance plant growth, disease resistance, and tolerance to adverse environmental conditions. This research aimed to examine the influence of NaCl concentration, temperature, pH, and photoperiodicity on the growth of four Trichoderma species, and to evaluate the potential of Trichoderma spp. as a biological control agent against five post-harvest fungal pathogens under laboratory conditions. Mycelial growth of Trichoderma species exhibited a negative correlation with salinity. Maximum growth rates (4.35-4.59 cm) were observed at control salinity (0 µM). Potato Dextrose Agar media consistently supported significantly (p ≤ 0.05) higher mycelial growth (4.33-4.35 cm) than Malt Extract Agar, Carrot Agar, and Komada for all Trichoderma species. The optimal temperature for mycelial growth of Trichoderma spp. ranged from 25-30°C, with maximum growth rates of 4.12-4.40 cm. Temperatures below 20°C and above 35°C resulted in substantial growth reduction, demonstrating temperature's critical influence on mycelial development. Besides, the optimal pH for mycelial growth of Trichoderma spp. ranged from 5 to 7, with maximum growth rates of 4.12-4.43 cm. Mycelial growth of Trichoderma spp. was significantly enhanced under a 12-hour light/dark cycle (4.33-4.43 cm) compared to continuous light (2.24-2.79 cm) and continuous darkness (2.28-2.56 cm) conditions. Therefore, Trichoderma spp. treatments significantly inhibited the mycelial growth of five fungal pathogens compared to the control group, among them, T. koningii demonstrated the highest level of inhibition, ranging from 0.28 cm (B. cinerea) to 1.65 cm (A. niger).
Effect of different postharvest treatments on shelf life and quality of banana (Musa spp.) at Charikot, Dolakha, Nepal
This experiment was carried out in the laboratory of Rural Development Tuki Association, Charikot, Dolakha, Nepal to study the shelf life and physio-chemical parameters of banana. The design of the experiment was completely randomized design (CRD) with 7 treatments and 3 replications with 7 destructive and 5 non-destructive samples. Samples were kept under different packaging materials. The treatments included as control, unperforated bag, perforated bag, unperforated bag with KMnO4, perforated bag with KMnO4, unperforated bag treated with CaCl2, perforated bag treated with CaCl2. The data were collected from the destructive and non-destructive sample in 2 days’ interval and MS-EXCEL and R-STUDIO was used for the data analysis. The highest physiological weight loss of banana was in control (23.33%)and lowest in unperforated polybag (0.66%), unperforated polybag with CaCl2 (0.73%), unperforated polybag with KMnO4 (1.53%) in 12 days after treatment. The highest shelf life of banana was in unperforated bags with KMnO4 (19 days) while the lowest shelf life was observed in control (9 days). The highest pulp to peel ratio was observed in control (2.23) while the lowest pulp to peel ratio was in unperforated bags with KMnO4 (1.46). The pH showed insignificant result and similarly TSS showed insignificant result till 6 DAT while control showed highest (14) and lowest was found in unperforated polybag with KMnO4 (9.33) and unperforated polybag (9.33) at 12 days after treatment. Thus, unperforated polybag with KMnO4 could be used to enhance post-harvest life of banana.
Pesticide use in banana cultivation: Insights into farmers’ knowledge and practices in Nawalparasi west, Nepal
Banana is one of the most important fruit crops in Nawalparasi West Nepal’s serving as a significant production hub. This study was aimed to investigate the knowledge and practices of 100 randomly selected banana farmers regarding pesticide use in two rural municipalities of Nawalparasi West, Nepal. The data was collected through structured survey and were analyzed using MS- Excel and Statistical Package of Social Sciences (SPSS). The study revealed a significant (p<0.05) gap in knowledge with 45% farmers unaware of pesticide labels and only 33% farmers being knowledgeable of Restricted Entry Interval (REI). Despite the widespread reliance on chemical pesticides, only 29% farmers had received training on safe handling practices while 70% farmers had no knowledge on banned pesticides in Nepal. Also, Sigatoka leaf spot and Banana leaf and fruit scarring beetle was highlighted as the major disease and insect affecting banana farming. Among protective measures were insufficient, 82% farmers using only masks but fewer adopting gloves (4%) or aprons (3%) during application of pesticides. Health issues such as burning sensation and skin irritation were commonly reported due to pesticide exposure. Additionally, unsafe storage of pesticide cans and containers were observed, and only 30% farmers storing them in separate storage houses. The study underscores the urgent need for targeted training programs to promote Integrated Pest Management (IPM) and safe pesticide handling practices. Enhancing farmers’ awareness through extension activities and policy interventions is critical to mitigate health risks and environmental damage.
Growth performance of Eucalyptus camaldulensis across two distinct sites in Sindhuli district of Nepal
This study evaluated the site-specific growth performance of Eucalyptus camaldulensis plantations in Nepal’s Sindhuli district, comparing -terraced agricultural land (Site 1) and flatland (Site 2) over nine years. The aim was to quantify differences in growth parameters and soil properties to perform sustainable plantation management. Diameter at breast height (DBH), height, basal area, volume, and above-ground total biomass (AGTB) were measured for 314 trees, alongside soil nutrients analysis (pH, organic carbon, N, P, K) from 43 plots. Statistical analyses (Welch’s t-test, regression) were employed to assess site variations. Results revealed significantly (p < 0.001) superior growth in Site 2, with higher mean DBH (9.00 ± 2.61 cm vs. 6.95 ± 3.71 cm), height (7.88 ± 0.80 m vs. 7.01 ± 1.97 m), and AGTB (26.96 ± 17.11 kg vs. 20.48 ± 34.16 kg) compared to Site 1. Volume distribution also significantly (p < 0.001) favored at Site 2 across all diameter classes (e.g., >15 cm: 0.16 m³ vs. 0.12 m³). Soil pH was significantly lower in Site 2 (4.72 vs. 5.48, p < 0.05), likely due to Eucalyptus litter acidity, though other nutrients remained comparable. Regression confirmed DBH and height as robust predictors of volume (R² = 0.955). The findings highlighted the flatland topography as optimal for E. camaldulensis productivity, driven by favorable microclimatic and edaphic conditions. Therefore, this study recommends strategic site selection prioritizing flatlands and pH-adjusted soil management to enhance carbon sequestration and timber yields, offering actionable insights for agroforestry resilience in Nepal’s mid-hills.
A comprehensive review on drought stress in wheat: Causes, mechanism and management practices
Plant health is cornerstone for agricultue productivity and food security. Severe impacts have been observed in wheat crop including physiological, morphological and bio chemical components as a result of water insufficiency. Seedling growth aspects such as seedling length, length of primary roots, seedling dry weight, and germination percentage are also affected whenever water scarcity prevails in the soil. Early flag leaf senescence decreased the grain yield of wheat while a delay in flag leaf senescence enhanced the grain yield of wheat under drought stress. Physiological phenomena like chlorophyll content, photosynthesis rate, rate of evapotranspiration, and relative water content in wheat are affected by water scarcity in soil. Proline content, osmotic adjustment, and abscisic acid accumulations are affected in periods of water deficit in wheat. Escape, avoidance, recovery, and tolerance meachanism appear in the wheat crop to sort out drought stress. More effective and suitable drought-resistant wheat cultivars producing through advanced techniques are pivotal to combat against drought stress as well as for higher yield and sustainability purposes. In this paper we discussed the causes, mechanism and management practices of drought stress in wheat.