Physicochemical characteristics and antibiotic resistance patterns of enteric bacteria isolated from harvested rainwater (HRW) in Oraukwu, Anambra State, Nigeria
https://doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2024.0903019
Abstract
infections temperature, colour, turbidity, DO, TDS, TSS, alkalinity, hardness, chloride, and some heavy metals of the water samples were examined using APHA method. Bacteriological analyses were performed using the membrane filtration technique. Colonies formed were counted and expressed in CFU/100mL. Enteric bacteria were enumerated and characterized by their morphological characteristics and biochemical tests. Axenic cultures of the isolates were further subjected to antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST) using the modified Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion method, based on the guidelines by CLSI. Results revealed that physicochemical parameters and some heavy metals were within acceptable limits, except for Fe (0.01-0.72 mg/L) and Pb (0.01-0.25 mg/L). Total bacterial counts ranged from 1.2×104 to 6.8×104 CFU/100mL, indicating high contamination. Morphological characteristics revealed twelve (12) isolates of enteric bacteria, comprising Escherichia coli (41.67%), Salmonella sp. (33.33%) and Shigella sp. (25%). All the isolates exhibited 100% resistant to augmentin and tetracycline, but showed varying degrees of susceptibilities; E. coli to levofloxacin (60%), Salmonella sp. to ertapenem, imipenem, levofloxacin and nalidixic acid (100%), and Shigella sp. to ceftriaxone and ertapenem (100%). ‘First flush’ diverters are recommended to be installed within the water collecting system, in order to divert runoff from the rooftop after a period of no rainfall. Antibiotics which the isolates were susceptible to are recommended for the treatment of infections caused by these pathogens.
Keywords:
Antibiogram, Enteric bacteria, Harvested rainwater, Multidrug resistance, OraukwuDownloads
References
Abaasa, C. N., Ayesiga, S., Lejju, J. B., Andama, M., Tamwesigire, I. K., Bazira, J., & Byarugaba, F. (2024). Assessing the quality of drinking water from selected water sources in Mbarara city, South-western Uganda. PLoS One, 19(3), 1342–1351.
Afunwa, R. A., Ezeanyika, J., Afunwa, E.C., Udeh,A.S., Oli, A. N., & Unachukwu, M. (2020). Multiple antibiotic resistant index of Gram-negative bacteria from bird droppings in two commercial poultries in Enugu, Nigeria. Open Journal of Medical Microbiology, 10(4), 171–181. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojmm.2020.104015
Amin, M. T., & Alazba, A. A. (2019). Probable sources of rainwater contamination in a rainwater harvesting system and remedial options. Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, 5(12), 1054–1064.
Amos, C. C., Rahman, A., Gathenya, J. M., Friedler, E., Karim, F., & Renzaho, A. (2020). Roof-harvested rainwater use in household agriculture: Contributions to the sustainable development goals (SDGs). Water, 12(2), 332–340. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12020332
American Public Health Association (APHA) (2023). Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 24th edition. APHA, American Water Works Association (AWWA) and Water Environment Federation (WEF), Washington D.C., pp. 545–578.
Anabtawi, F., Mahmoud, N., Al-Khatib, I. A., & Hung, Y. (2022). Heavy metals in harvested rainwater used for domestic purposes in rural areas: Yatta Area, Palestine as a case study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(5), 2683–2691. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19052683
Breijyeh, Z., Jubeh, B., & Karaman, R. (2020). Resistance of Gram-negative bacteria to current antibacterial agents and approaches to resolve it. Molecules, 25, 13–40.
Campisano, A., Butler, D., Ward, S., Burns, M. J., Friedler, E., DeBusk, K., Fisher-Jeffes, L. N., Ghisi, E., Rahman, A., & Furumai, H. (2017). Urban rainwater harvesting systems: Research, implementation and future perspectives. Water Resources, 115, 195–209. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2017.02.056
Cheesbrough, M. (2006). District laboratory practice in tropical countries, part 2.
Clinical and Laboratory Standard Institute (CLSI) (2020). Performance standard for antimicrobial susceptibility testing, 30th edition, CLSI supplement M100-524, Wayne, P.A. United States. pp. 50–57.
De Sá Silva, A. C. R., Bimbato, A.M., Balestieri, J. A. P., & Vilanova, M. R. N. (2022). Exploring environmental, economic and social aspects of rainwater harvesting systems: A review. Sustainable Cities and Society, 76, 103475.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j/scs.2021.103475
Ekelozie, I.S., Ekejindu, I.M., Ochiabuto, O.M.T.B., Obi, M.C., Onwuasoanya, U.F.. & Obeagu, E.I. (2018). Evaluation of Salmonella species in water sources in two Local Government Areas of Anambra State. Cohesive Journal of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, 1(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.31031/cjmi.2018.01.000501
Ewelike, N.C., Ogbonnaya, P.C., Ekwebelem, V.C., Onyema, J.U., Chuku, P.E., & Anoka, E.O. (2020). Microbiological quality of harvested rainwater used for drinking and domestic purposes in Southeastern Nigeria. Singapore Journal of Scientific Research, 10(1), 47–51. https://doi.org/10.17311/sjsres.2020.47.51
Frieri, M., Kumar, K., & Boutin, A. (2017). Antibiotic resistance. Journal of Infections and Public Health, 10, 369–378. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiph.2016.08.007
Fukuda, K., Lam, T., Tun, H., Peiris, J.S.M., Cowling, B.J., & Zhang, T. (2023). Surveillance of environmental contamination by antibiotics and antibiotic–resistant pathogens: abridged secondary publication. Hong Kong Medical Journal, 1(1), 32–33.
Ghodsi, S.H., Zhu, Z., Matott, L.S., Rabideau, A.J., & Torres, M.N. (2023). Optimal siting of rainwater harvesting systems for reducing combined sewer overflows at City scale. Water Resources, 230, 119533. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2022.119533
Girma, A., Kassie, M., Bauer, S., & Leal, F.W. (2019). Integrated rainwater harvesting practices for poverty reduction under climate change: Micro-evidence from Ethiopia. In University Initiatives in Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation; Springer International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland, pp. 159–174. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-89590-1_10
Gwimbi, P., George, M., & Ramphalile, M. (2019). Bacterial contamination of drinking water sources in rural villages in Mohale Basin, Lesotho: exposures through neighbourhood sanitation and hygiene practices. Environmental Health of Preventive Medicine, 24, 33–41. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12199-019-0790-z
IDPH (1999). “Iron in Drinking Water” Division of Environmental Health: Springfield, 217-782-5830.
Hamilton, K., Reyneke, B., Waso, M., Clements, T., Ndlovu, T., Khan, W., & Ahmed, W. (2019). A global review of the microbiological quality and potential health risks associated with roof-harvested rainwater tanks. NPJ Clean Water, 2,
–15. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41545-019-0030-5
Holt, J. G., Krieg, N. R., Sneath, J. T., & Williams, S. T. (2002). Bergey’s manual of determinative bacteriology, 19th edition. Lippincot: Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia, USA. pp. 151–156, 542.
Kelemewerk, M. Z., Kassegn, A. A., & Endris, M. E. (2020). Adoption of rainwater harvesting and its impact on smallholder farmer livelihoods in Kutaber district, South Wollo Zone, Ethiopia. Cogent Food Agriculture, 6, 1834910. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2020.1834910
Khan, S., Shahnaz, M., Jehan, N., Rehman, S., Shah, M. T., & Din, I. (2023). Drinking water quality and human health risk in Charsadda District, Pakistan. Journal of Cleaner Production, 70, 93–101. https://doi.org/1016/j.clepro.2022.02.016
Khayan, K., Husodo, A. H., Astuti, I., Sudarmadji, S., & Djohan, T. S. (2019). Rainwater as a souce of drinking water: Health impacts and rainwater treatment. Journal of Environmental and Public Health, 2019(1), 1760950.
https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/1760950
Malema, M.S., Abia, A.L.K., Tandlich, R., Zuma, B., Kahinda, J.M., & Ubomba-Jaswa, E. (2018). Antibiotic-resistant pathogenic Escherichia coli isolated from rooftop rainwater-harvested tanks in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(5), 892–902. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15050892
Manyi-Loh, C.E., Okoh, A.I., & Lues, R. (2023). Prevalence of multidrug-resistant bacteria (enteropathogens) recovered from a blend of pig manure and pinewood saw dust during anaerobic co-digestion in a steel bio-digester. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(2), 984–994. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph200020984
Maspalma, G.A., Ndonya, A.E., Maryam, U.A.., Hamman, K.S., & Ogbusua, K.N. (2022). Assessment of the quality of natural rainwater for domestic use in Jimeta, Yola metropolis, Adamawa State. Journal of Chemical Society of Nigeria, 47(4). https://doi.org/10.46602/jcsn.v47i4.787
Mazurkiewicz, K., Jeż-Walkowiak, J., & Michałkiewicz, M. (2022). Physicochemical and microbiological quality of rainwater harvested in underground retention tanks. Science of The Total Environment, 814, 152701. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.152701
Morka, E. (2022). Microbial and physicochemical quality of harvested rainwater in Eku and Abraka metropolis. Nigerian Journal of Pure and Applied Science, 35(1),4239–4249. https://doi.org/10.48198/NJPAS
Mukhtar, H. I., Yaro, M. A., Suleiman, M., & Unguwa, N. M. (2019). Physicochemical analysis of rainwater harvested from different rooftop along Zaria road, in Kano metropolitan. Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Materials, 6(1),1–4.
Naser, A.M., Martorell, R., Narayan, K.M.V., & Clasen, T.F. (2017). First do no harm: The need to explore potential adverse health implications of drinking rainwater. Environmental Science and Technology, 51, 5865–5866.
https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.7b01886
Nassar, M. S. M., Hazzah, W. A., & Bakr, W. M. K. (2019). Evaluation of antibiotic susceptibility test results: How guilty a laboratory could be? Journal of the Egyptian Public Health Association, 94, 4–9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s42506-018-0006-1
Nigerian Industrial Standards (NIS) (2007). Nigerian standard for drinking water quality. P. 30.
Nnaji, C.C., Edeh, G.C., & Nnam, J.P. (2018). Status of domestic water supply and prospects of rainwater harvesting in Southeastern Nigeria. International Journal of Water, 12(1), 82. https://doi.org/10.1504/ijw.2018.090189
Nwogu, F.U., Ubuoh, E.A., & Kanu, S.C. (2024). Chemical characteristics and microbiological loads of harvested rainwater run-off from roof tops in South Eastern Nigeria. Discovery and Sustainability, 5(4), 145–161.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s43621-023-00177-z
Okoye, E. C. S., Onuorah, S. C., Okoye, L. C., & Nwadiogbu, J. O. (2022a). Effect of seasonal variations on the physicochemical characteristics of spring water in Oji River LGA, Enugu State, Nigeria. Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science, 7(1), 86–92. https://doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2022.0701012
Okoye, E. C. S., Onuorah, S. C., Okoye, L. C., & Mbonu, C. F. (2022b). Impact of seasonal variations on the physicochemical and bacteriological parameters of spring water in Oji River LGA, Enugu State, Nigeria. International Journal of Environmental and Ecology Research, 4(4), 15–23. https://doi.org/10.13189/ijeer.2022.040407
Okoye, E C. S., Egudu, N. A., Dibua, N. A., & Okoye, L. C. (2024). Seasonal variation and antibiotic susceptibility patterns of bacteriological parameters in groundwater sources in Oyi LGA, Anambra State, Nigeria. Journal of Advances in Microbiology, 24(5), 40–54.
Olalemi, A. O., Ige, O. M., James, G. A., Obasoro, F. I., Okoko, F. O., & Ogunleye, C. O. (2021). Detection of enteric bacteria in two groundwater sources and associated microbial health risks. Journal of Water Health, 19(2), 322–335. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2021.212
Onah, J. C., Obasi, B. M. P., & Amanoh, C. F. (2019). Physicochemical analysis of rainwater from five different sites in Enugu Metropolis (Emene, IMT Campus 3, Agbani Road, Abakpa and Coal Camp). IDOSR Journal of Experimental Sciences, 4(1), 91–97.
Ross, T. T., Alim, M. A., & Rahman, A. (2022). A community-scale rural drinking water supply systems based on harvested rainwater: A case study of Australia and Vietnam. Water, 14, 1763–1774. https://doi.org/i:10.3390/w.14111763
Pal, M., Ayele, Y., Hadush, M., Panigrahi, S., & Jadhav, V. J. (2018). Public health hazards due to unsafe drinking water. Air, Water Borne Diseases, 7,1000138.
Reygaert, W.C. (2018). An overview of the antimicrobial resistance mechanisms of bacteria.AIMS Microbiology, 4, 482–501. https://doi.org/10.3934/microbial.2018.3.482
Ripanda, A.S., Rwiza, M.J., Nyanza, E.C., Miraj, I.H., Bih, N.L., Mzula, A., & Machunda, R.L. (2023). Antibiotic-resistant microbial population in urban receiving waters and wastewaters from Tanzania. Environmental Chemistry and
Ecotoxicology, 5,1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enceco.2022.10.003
Sabrina, L. S. P., AnaCarolina, A. D. F., Angeisienie, R. M. R., Callandra, M. D. S., Daniela, C. O., & Izabel, C. R. D. (2021). Presence of tetracycline and sulphonamide resistance genes in Salmonella sp.: Literature review. Antibiotics, 10(11),1314. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics10111314
Saeed, N., Usman, M., & Khan, E.A. (2019). An overview of the extensively drug-resistant Salmonella typhi from a tertiary care hospital in Pakistan. Cureus, 11(9),e5663. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.5663
Sefton, C., Sharp, L., Quinn, R., Stovin, V., & Pitcher, L. (2022). The feasibility of domestic rain-tanks contributing to community-oriented urban flood resilience. Climate Risk Management, 35, 100390. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crm.2021.100390
Siraj, H., Getamesay, M., & Zemenu, Y. K. (2019). Prevalence of Shigella species and its drug resistance pattern: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Annals of Clinical Microbiologyand Antimicrobials, 18(22),s12941. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12941-019-0321-1
Sjolund-Karlsson, M., Howie, R.L., Crump, J.A., & Whichard, J.M. (2014). Fluoroquinolones susceptibility testing of Salmonella enterica: detection of acquired resistance and selection of zone diameter breakpoints for levofloxacin and oxfloxacin. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 52(3), 877–884. https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.02679-13
Słyś, D., & Stec, A. (2020). A centralized or decentralized rainwater harvesting system: A case study. Resources, 9(1), 5–13. https://doi.org/10.3390/resources9010005
Teston, A., Scolaro, T. P., Maykot, J. K., & Ghisi, E. (2022). Comprehensive environmental assessment of rainwater harvesting systems: A literature review. Water, 14(17), 2716–2723. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14172716
Titilawo, M. A., Josiah, G. G., Simeon, O. N., Ali, C. M., Ugwuocha, C. S., Ojediran, G. O., Titilawo, O. Y., & Olaitan, J. O. (2024). Physical quality and antibiotic susceptibility profile of Escherichia coli isolates from roof-harvested rainwater: A microcosm study. Ife Journal of Science, 26(1), 213–221. https://doi.org/104314/ijs.v26i1.5
Tiwari, B., Khuc, T., Abidin, Z., Gul, S., Trofort, M., & Lliou, C. (2021). Bacterial analysis of roof-harvested rainwater and their implications to public health in the Caribbean Island of Anguilla. Nepal Medical College Journal, 23(1), 66–71. https://doi.org/10.3126/nmcj.v23i1.36235
United Nations (UN) (2019). Available online: https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal6 (accessed on 28 February, 2024).
United Nations Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) (2014). World water day 2025: 4,000 children die each day from a lack of safe water, http://www.unicef.org/wash/index_25637.html.
Waideman, M. A., Teixeira, V. P., Uemura, E. H., Stamford, T. M., Leal, D. A. G., Stangarlin-Fiori, L., Ferreira, S. M. R., Taconeli, C. A., & Beux, M. R. (2020). Enterococci used as complementary indicator of faecal contamination to assess water quality from public schools in the city of Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil. Brazilian Journal of Food Technology, 23(2), e2019155.
https://doi.org/10.1590/1981-6723.15519
World Health Organization (WHO) (2008). Guidelines for drinking-water quality: third edition, incorporating first and second addenda. WHO Press, Geneva, Switzerland.
WHO (2017). Guidelines for drinking water quality: fourth edition incorporating the first addendum. Geneva: License: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO.
WHO (2019). Water Sanitation and Hygiene: Management advice sheet 6.11 Rainwater harvesting. http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/gdwqrevision/rainwater.pdf.
WHO & UNICEF (2024). Joint monitoring programme for water supply, sanitation and hygiene (JMP). WHO Press Geneva, Switzerland.
Zdeb, B., Zamorska, J., Papciak, D., & Słyś, D. (2020). The quality of rainwater collected from roofs and the possibility of its economic use. Resources, 9(2), 12–22. https://doi.org/10.3390/resources9020012
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
Copyright (c) 2024 Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
