A review on the impact of wildfires on ecosystems, water quality, and health risks to humans
https://doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2025.1001026
Abstract
Due to global warming, climatic changes, and enhanced anthropogenic activities (due to population growth) over the past 20 years, the number and intensity of wildfires have increased manifold around the world. Although forest fire is integral to shaping the forest’s flora and fauna and maintaining the environment’s health, frequent fires and their severity are causing several adverse impacts on the environment, aquatic organisms, wild animals, and humans. Wildfire releases the volatile organic pollutants in the environment (in the form of smoke), inducing changes in soil physicochemical properties and affecting the hydrological cycle. The pH values of soil and surface water are altered due to ash, which adversely impacts the aquatic organisms and soil microbes. The soil’s water retention capacity significantly reduced (35-45%). The smoke generated during wildfires adversely affects the health of wild animals and humans. Trends that are predicted to continue are not only a natural disturber of forests and ecosystems but also significantly affect human and wild animals’ health adversely. Wildfires not only damage forests and have a negative impact on human and animal health but also threaten water security, increase the probability of flooding, and increase economic losses. In-depth research and understanding on this topic are urgently needed for the better management of forest ecosystems. In this review research information publish after 2019 was considered and we have discussed the recent update in wildfire and forest fire, their causes, impacts on the soil quality, water resources, biodiversity and human health, and this article will serve as the basis for future wildfire research.
Keywords:
Biodiversity loss, Fire impacts, Organic acids, Oxidative stress, Vegetation and soil lossDownloads
References
Ackley, C., Tank, S. E., & Haynes, K. M. (2021). Coupled hydrological and geochemical impacts of wildfire in peatland-dominated regions of discontinuous permafrost. Science of The Total Environment, 782, 146841. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.146841
Balla, A., Silini, A., & Cherif-Silini, H. (2021). The threat of pests and pathogens and the potential for biological control in forest ecosystems. Forests, 12,1579. https://doi.org/10.3390/f12111579
Baudet, A., Baurès, E., & Blanchard, O. (2022). Indoor Carbon Dioxide, Fine Particulate Matter and Total Volatile Organic Compounds in Private Healthcare and Elderly Care Facilities. Toxics, 10, 136.
Beyene, M.T., Leibowitz, S.G., & Pennino, M. J. (2021). Parsing Weather Variability and Wildfire Effects on the Post-Fire Changes in Daily Stream Flows: A Quantile-Based Statistical Approach and Its Application. Water Resources Research, 57(10), e2020WR028029. https://doi.org/10.1029/2020WR028029
Brando, P., Macedo, M., & Silvério, D. (2020). Amazon wildfires: Scenes from a foreseeable disaster. Flora, 268, 151609. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.flora.2020.151609
Chaiklieng, S., Tongsantia, U., & Autrup, H. N. (2021). Risk assessment of inhalation exposure to formaldehyde among workers in medical laboratories. Asia-Pacific Journal Science Technology, 26, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.14456/ APST.2021.45
Collar, N. M., Ebel, B. A., & Saxe, S. (2023a). Implications of fire-induced evapotranspiration shifts for recharge-runoff generation and vegetation conversion in the western United States. Journal of Hydrology, 621, 129646. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2023.129646
Collar, N.M. & Earles, T.A. (2023b). Unique challenges posed by fire disturbance to water supply management and transfer agreements in a headwaters region. Journal of Environmental Management, 339, 117956. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.117956
Cristaldi, A., Fiore, M., & Oliveri, C. G. (2022). Possible association between PM2.5 and neurodegenerative diseases: A systematic review. Environmental Research, 208, 112581. https://doi.org/10.j.envres.2021.112581
Dickinson, G. N., Miller, D. D., & Bajracharya, A. (2022). Health Risk Implications of Volatile Organic Compounds in Wildfire Smoke During the 2019 FIREX-AQ Campaign and Beyond. Geo Health, 6, e2021GH000546
Emmerton, C. A., Cooke, C. A., & Hustins, S. (2020). Severe western Canadian wildfire affects water quality even at large basin scales. Water Research, 183, 116071. https://doi.org/10.1016/waters. 2020.116071
Farid, A., Alam, M. K., & Goli, V. S. (2024). A Review of the Occurrence and Causes for Wildfires and Their Impacts on the Geoenvironment. Fire, 7(8), 295. https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7080295
Ferrer, I. & Thurman, E.M. (2023). Chemical tracers for Wildfires–Analysis of runoff surface Water by LC/Q-TOF-MS. Chemosphere, 339, 139747. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.139747
Ferrer, I., Thurman, E.M., & Zweigenbaum, J.A. (2021). Wildfires: Identification of a new suite of aromatic polycarboxylic acids in ash and surface water. Science of The Total Environment, 770, 144661. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.scitotenv.2020.144661
Gavhane, S. K., Sapkale, J. B., & Susware, N. K. (2021). Impact of Heavy Metals in Riverine and Estuarine Environment: A review. Research Journal of Chemistry and Environment, 25 (5), 226-233.
Gomez Isaza, D. F., Cramp, R. L. & Franklin, C. E. (2022). Fire and rain: A systematic review of the impacts of wildfire and associated runoff on aquatic fauna. Global Change Biology, 28(8), 2578-2595. https://doi.org/10.1111/ gcb.16088
Gorshkov, A. G., Izosimova, O. N., & Kustova, O. V. (2020). Wildfires as a Source of PAHs in Surface Waters of Background Areas (Lake Baikal, Russia). Water, 13(19), 2636. https://doi.org/10.3390/ w13192636
Grant, E. & Runkle, J. D. (2022). Long-term health effects of wildfire exposure: A scoping review. The Journal of Climate Change and Health, 6,100110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joclim.2021.100110
Grulke, N. E. & Heath, R. L. (2020). Ozone effects on plants in natural ecosystems. Plant Biology, 22, 12-37. https://doi.org/10.1111/plb.12971
Haque, Md.K., Azad, Md A. K., & Hossain, Md , Y. (2021) Wildfire in Australia during 2019-2020, Its Impact on Health, Biodiversity and Environment with Some Proposals for Risk Management: A Review. Journal of Environmental Protection, 12, 391-414. https://doi.org/10.4236/jep.2021.126024
Jiang, L., Li, Y. & Cai, Y. (2022). Probabilistic health risk assessment and monetization based on benzene series exposure in newly renovated teaching buildings. Environmental International, 163, 107194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2022.107194
Kyung, S. Y. & Jeong, S. H. (2020). Particulate-matter related respiratory diseases. Tuberculosis Respiratory Diseases (Seoul), 83, 116–121. https://doi.org/10.4046/TRD.2019.0025
Lan, Z., Su, Z., & Guo, M. (2021). Are Climate Factors Driving the Contemporary Wildfire Occurrence in China? Forests, 12(4), 392. https://doi.org/10.3390/f12040392
Leveque, B., Burnet, J., & Dorner, S. (2021). Impact of climate change on the vulnerability of drinking water intakes in a northern region. Sustainable Cities and Society, 66, 102656. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2020. 102656
Li, J., Chang, R., & Li, L. (2024). Spatiotemporal variation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Tibetan lake sediment cores reveals the influence of forest fires. Science of The Total Environment, 954, 176737. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.176737
Li, J., Awasthi, M. K., & Zhu, Q. (2021). Modified Soil Physicochemical Properties Promoted Sequestration of Organic and Inorganic Carbon Synergistically During Re-vegetation in Desert Field Land. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 9, 106331.
Li, H-H., Tsui, MT-K., & Ku, P. (2022). Impacts of Forest Fire Ash on Aquatic Mercury Cycling. Environmental Science Technology, 56, 11835−11844. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.2c01591
Lopez, A. M., Pacheco, J. L. & Fendorf, S. (2023). Metal toxin threat in wildland fires determined by geology and fire severity. Nature Communications, 14(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-43101-9
Ma, D., Duan, H., & Zhang, J. (2022). A state-of-the-art review on rock seepage mechanism of water inrush disaster in coal mines. International Journal Coal Science Technology, 9, 50. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40789-022-00525-w
Mangiameli, M., Mussumeci, G. & Cappello, A. (2021). Forest Fire Spreading Using Free and Open-Source GIS Technologies. Geomatics, 1(1), 50-64. https://doi.org/10.3390/geomatics1010005
Moazeni, S., & Cerdà, A. (2024). The impacts of forest fires on watershed hydrological response. A review. Trees, Forests and People, 18, 100707. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tfp.2024.100707
NCBI-National Center for Biotechnology Information. (2021). Pub Chem compound summary for CID 7500, ethyl benzene. https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Ethylbenzene
Neumann, J. E., Amend, M., & Anenberg, S. (2021). Estimating PM2.5-related premature mortality and morbidity associated with future wildfire emissions in the western US. Environmental Research Letters, 16(3), 035019. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/abe82b
O’Dell, K., Bilsback, K., & Ford, B. (2021). Estimated mortality and morbidity attributable to smoke plumes in the United States: Not just a western US problem. Geo Health, 5, e2021GH000457. https://doi.org/10.1029/2021GH000457
Orr, A., Buford, M., & Ballou, S. (2020). Sustained Effects on Lung Function in Community Members Following Exposure to Hazardous PM2.5 Levels from Wildfire Smoke. Toxics, 8(3), 53. https://doi.org/10.3390/ toxics 8030053
Ortiz-Partida, J. P., Weintraub, C., & Fernandez-Bou, A.S. (2020). Climate Change in the San Joaquin Valley: A Household and Community Guide to Taking Action. Cambridge, MA: Union of Concerned Scientists. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.36113.86882
Otgonbyamba, O.-E., Altangerel, E., & Ganbat, G. (2023). Unintentional Carbon Monoxide Poisoning Outbreak from 2 to 9 October 2019 in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. Occupational Diseases and Environmental Medicine, 11, 97-114. https://doi.org/10.4236/odem.2023.112006
Oyun-Erdene, O., Suvd, B., & Buuveidulam, A. (2021). Carbon monoxide poisoning, 2016-2020, Mongolia. Quarterly Journal of Mongolian Academy of Medical Sciences, 2, 46–54.
Ozgeldinova, Z., Mukayev, Z., & Zhanguzhina A. (2025). Impact of forest fire on the heavy metal content in the soil cover of the Amankaragay pine forest. Journal of Ecological Engineering, 26(3), 350–364. https://doi.org/10.12911/22998993/199472
Palm, B. B., Peng, Q., & Fredrickson, C. D. (2020). Quantification of organic aerosol and brown carbon evolution in fresh wildfire plumes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(47), 29469-29477. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2012218117
Paul, M. J., LeDuc, S. D., Lassiter, M. G. (2022). Wildfire Induces Changes in Receiving Waters: A Review With Considerations for Water Quality Management. Water Resources Research, 58(9), e2021WR030699. https://doi.org/10.1029/2021WR030699
Pennino, M. J., Leibowitz, S. G., & Compton, J. E. (2022). Wildfires can increase regulated nitrate, arsenic, and disinfection byproduct violations and concentrations in public drinking water supplies. Science of The Total Environment, 804, 149890. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.149890
Permar, W., Wang, Q., & Selimovic, V. (2021). Emissions of trace organic gases from western u.s. wildfires based on WE-CAN Aircraft Measurements. Journal Geophysics Research Atmosphere, 126, e2020 JD033838. https://doi.org/10.1029/2020JD033838
Rajasekhar, B., Nambi, I.M. & Govindarajan, S. K. (2020). Human health risk assessment for exposure to BTEXN in an urban aquifer using deterministic and probabilistic methods: A case study of Chennai city, India. Environmental Pollution, 265, 114814. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ENVPOL.2020.114814
Rao, J. N. & Parsai, T. (2025). Pollution and toxicity of heavy metals in wildfires-affected soil and surface water: A review and meta-analysis. Environmental Pollution, 369, 125845. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2025. 125845
Raoelison, O. D., Valenca, R., & Lee, A. (2023). Wildfire impacts on surface water quality parameters: Cause of data variability and reporting needs. Environmental Pollution, 317, 120713. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. envpol. 2022.120713
Robinne, N., Hallema, D. W., & Bladon, K. D. (2021). Scientists' warning on extreme wildfire risks to water supply. Hydrological Processes, 35(5), e14086. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.14086
Rosenthal, A., Stover, E., & Haar, R. J. (2021). Health and social impacts of California wildfires and the deficiencies in current recovery resources: An exploratory qualitative study of systems-level issues. PLOS ONE, 16(3), e0248617. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248617
Salas, E.B. (2024). Economic impacts caused by wildfires worldwide 1991-2023. Statista, Nov 27, 2024
Schammel, M. H., Gold, S. J. & McCurry, D. L. (2024). Metals in Wildfire Suppressants. Environmental Science & Technology Letters, 11(11), 1247. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.estlett.4c00727
Scordo, F., Sadro, S., & Culpepper, J. (2022). Wildfire smoke effects on lake-habitat specific metabolism: Toward a conceptual understanding. Geophysical Research Letters, 49, e2021GL097057. https://doi.org/10.1029/ 2021 GL097057
Shala, N.K., Stenehjem, J.S., & Babigumira, R. (2023).Exposure to benzene and other hydrocarbons and risk of bladder cancer among male offshore petroleum workers. British Journal Cancer, 129, 838–851. https://doi.org/10.1038/ s41416-023-02357-0
Simms, L.A., Borras, E., & Chew, B.S. (2021). Environmental sampling of volatile organic compounds during the 2018 Camp Fire in Northern California. Journal of Environmental Sciences, 103, 135–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2020.10.003
Singh, S. (2022). Forest fire emissions: A contribution to global climate change. Frontiers in Forests and Global Change, 5, 925480. https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2022.925480
US Environmental Protection Agency (2022). Health Effects Attributed to Wildfire Smoke US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, 2022.
US Environmental Protection Agency (2021). Climate Impacts on Ecosystems. https://19january2017 snapshot.epa.gov/climate-impacts/climate-impacts-ecosystems_.html.
Uzun, H., Dahlgren, R. A., & Olivares, C. (2020). Two years of post-wildfire impacts on dissolved organic matter, nitrogen, and precursors of disinfection by-products in California stream waters. Water Research, 181, 115891.
Valenca, R., Ramnath, K., & Dittrich, T.M. (2020). Microbial quality of surface water and subsurface soil after wildfire. Water Research, 175, 115672. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2020.115672
Vilar, L., Herrera, S., & Tafur-Garcí, E. (2021). Modelling wildfire occurrence at regional scale from land use/cover and climate change scenarios. Environmental Modeling & Software, 145, 105200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. envsoft.2021.105200
Wan, X., Li, C. & Parikh, S.J. (2021). Chemical composition of soil‐associated ash from the southern California Thomas Fire and its potential inhalation risks to farmworkers. Journal of Environmental Management, 278, 111570. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.111570
Wang, Z., Wang, P., & Wagner, J. (2024). Impacts on Urban VOCs and PM2.5 during a Wildfire Episode. Environments, 11(4), 63. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11040063
Wang, M., Kinyua, J., & Jiang, T. (2022).Suspect Screening and Chemical Profile Analysis of Storm-Water Runoff Following 2017 Wildfires in Northern California. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 41(8),1824-1837. https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.5357
World Meteorological Organization (WMO). (2024). Vicious circle of climate change, wildfires and air pollution has major impacts, Sept 2024
Xu, R., Yu, P., & Abramson, M. J. (2020). Wildfires, Global Climate Change, and Human Health. New England Journal Medicine, 383, 2173-2181. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMsr202898
Zhuang, Y., Fu, R., & Santer, B. D. (2021). Quantifying contributions of natural variability and anthropogenic forcings on increased fire weather risk over the western United States. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(45), e2111875118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2111875118
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
Copyright (c) 2025 Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
