Gender division of labour in traditional biomass energy systems in rural Nepal

Abstract

Traditional biomass remains a dominant household energy source in many low- and middle-income countries, yet its gendered labour implications remain insufficiently examined at local scales. This study investigates the gendered division of labour and associated health burdens in firewood-dependent households in Krishnapur Municipality, Kanchanpur district, Nepal. A mixed-methods cross-sectional design was applied combining household surveys (n = 70), focus group discussions, and key informant interviews with forest user groups and ward officials. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, correlation tests and cross-tabulations, while qualitative data provided contextual explanations of labour norms and decision-making. Results revealed a persistent gender asymmetry in firewood-related tasks: women accounted for 65.7% of collection, 70% of arranging, and 58.6% of cooking activities, whereas men predominated in wood slicing (65.7%) and mechanized transportation. Overall, women contributed 43.1% to total workload compared to 21.7% for men and 35.1% jointly. More than half (54.3%) reported health problems linked to carrying and burning firewood, and distance to collection sites was strongly correlated with health complaints (r = 0.693, p < 0.01). Despite high reliance on firewood, 83% of households expressed willingness to shift to cleaner fuels, constrained primarily by economic limitations and forest access. The study contributes empirical evidence to gender-energy scholarship by quantifying task-specific labour burdens and linking them to health risks and time poverty. Findings highlight the need for gender-responsive clean cooking policies, improved financing mechanisms, and targeted community forestry interventions to reduce women’s workload and accelerate equitable energy transitions.